Atoms, Radiation, and Radiation Protection

James S. Bogard is a Senior Health Physicist in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and an Adjunct Professor in the Departments of Nuclear Engineering and Anthropology at the University of Tennessee. He is the author or co-author of over 85 articles, technical reports and presentations, including a workbook of health physics problems and solutions. Dr. Bogard is a past president of the American Academy of Health Physics, a Fellow of the Health Physics Society and a Distinguished Alumnus of Texas State University. Darryl J. Downing is Vice President, Statistical and Quantitative Sciences, at GlaxoSmithKline Pharmaceutical company. He was previously a member of the research staff at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and led the Statistics Group for 10 of his 20 years at ORNL. Dr. Downing graduated from the University of Florida in 1974 with a Ph.D. in Statistics. He has authored over 50 publications and has been a Fellow of the American Statistical Association since 2002. He is also a member of the International Statistics Institute since 1997 and serves on the editorial board for Pharmaceutical Statistics. Robert L. Coleman is a Senior Scientist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Technical Lead for in-vivo radio bioassay measurements. He manages the technical and day-to-day aspects of whole body, lung and organ measurements for gamma and x-ray emitting radionuclides in support of the ORNL radiation dosimetry program. Keith F. Eckerman is Staff Scientist at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the Energy and Environmental Sciences Divison. He obtained his Ph.D in Radiological Physics from Northwestern University and joined the Oak Ridge National Laboratory as leader of the Dosimetry Research Group after working at Argonne National Laboratory and with the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. He is a member of Committee 2 of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) and Chairman of its Task Group on Dose Calculations. In 1999 he received the Distinguished Scientific Achievement Award from the Health Physics Society and in 2001 the Loevinger-Berman Award from the Society of Nuclear Medicine. James E. Turner (1930-2008) was a retired Corporate Fellow from Oak Ridge National Laboratory and an Adjunct Professor of Nuclear Engineering at the University of Tennessee. In addition to extensive research and teaching both in the U. S. and abroad, Dr. Turner served on the editorial staffs of several professional journals, including Health Physics and Radiation Research, and was active in a number of scientific organizations.

ABOUT ATOMIC PHYSICS AND RADIATION

Classical Physics

Discovery of X-Rays

Some Important Dates in Atomic and Radiation Physics

Important Dates in Radiation Protection

Sources and Levels of Radiation Exposure

Suggested Reading



ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND ATOMIC RADIATION

The Atomic Nature of Matter (ca. 1900)

The Rutherford Nuclear Atom

Bohr's Theory of the Hydrogen Atom

Semiclassical Mechanics, 1913-1925

Quantum Mechanics

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

Atomic Theory of the Periodic System

Molecules

Solids and Energy Bands

Continuous and Characteristic X Rays

Auger Electrons

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



THE NUCLEUS AND NUCLEAR RADIATION

Nuclear Structure

Nuclear Binding Energies

Alpha Decay

Beta Decay (beta-)

Gamma-Ray Emission

Internal Conversion

Orbital Electron Capture

Positron Decay (beta+)

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Activity

Exponential Decay

Specific Activity

Serial Radioactive Decay

Natural Radioactivity

Radon and Radon Daughters

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



INTERACTION OF HEAVY CHARGED PARTICLES WITH MATTER

Energy-Loss Mechanisms

Maximum Energy Transfer in a Single Collision

Single-Collision Energy-Loss Spectra

Stopping Power

Semiclassical Calculation of Stopping Power

The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power

Mean Excitation Energies

Table for Computation of Stopping Powers

Stopping Power of Water for Protons

Range

Slowing-Down Time

Limitations of Bethe's Stopping-Power Formula

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



INTERACTION OF ELECTRONS WITH MATTER

Energy-Loss Mechanisms

Collisional Stopping Power

Radiative Stopping Power

Radiation Yield

Range

Slowing-Down Time

Examples of Electron Tracks in Water

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



PHENOMENA ASSOCIATED WITH CHARGED-PARTICLE TRACKS

Delta Rays

Restricted Stopping Power

Linear Energy Transfer (LET)

Specific Ionization

Energy Straggling

Range Straggling

Multiple Coulomb Scattering

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



INTERACTION OF PHOTONS WITH MATTER

Interaction Mechanisms

Photoelectric Effect

Energy-Momentum Requirements for Photon Absorption by an Electron

Compton Effect

Pair Production

Photonuclear Reactions

Attenuation Coefficients

Energy-Transfer and Energy-Absorption Coefficients

Calculation of Energy Absorption and Energy Transfer

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



NEUTRONS, FISSION, AND CRITICALITY

Introduction

Neutron Sources

Classification of Neutrons

Interactions with Matter

Elastic Scattering

Neutron-Proton Scattering Energy-Loss Spectrum

Reactions

Energetics of Threshold Reactions

Neutron Activation

Fission

Criticality

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



METHODS OF RADIATION DETECTION

Ionization in Gases

Ionization in Semiconductors

Scintillation

Photographic Film

Thermoluminescence

Other Methods

Neutron Detection

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



STATISTICS

The Statistical World of Atoms and Radiation

Radioactive Disintegration-Exponential Decay

Radioactive Disintegration-a Bernoulli Process

The Binomial Distribution

The Poisson Distribution

The Normal Distribution

Error and Error Propagation

Counting Radioactive Samples

Minimum Significant Measured Activity-Type-I Errors

Minimum Detectable True Activity-Type-II Errors

Criteria for Radiobioassay, HPS Nl3.30-1996

Instrument Response

Monte Carlo Simulation of Radiation Transport

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



RADIATION DOSIMETRY

Introduction

Quantities and Units

Measurement of Exposure

Measurement of Absorbed Dose

Measurement of X- and Gamma-Ray Dose

Neutron Dosimetry

Dose Measurements for Charged-Particle Beams

Determination of LET

Dose Calculations

Other Dosimetric Concepts and Quantities

Suggested Reading

Problems

Answers



CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

Time Frame for Radiation Effects

Physical and Prechemical Chances in Irradiated Water

Chemical Stage

Examples of Calculated Charged-Particle Tracks in Water

Chemical Yields in Water

Biological Effects

Sources of Human Data

The Acute Radiation Syndrome

Delayed Somatic Effects

Irradiation of Mammalian Embryo a