Materials Science and Engineering

William D. Callister is currently an adjunct professor in the Department?of Engineering at the University of Utah.?His teaching interests include writing and revising introductory materials science and engineering textbooks, in both print and electronic formats. He also enjoys developing ancillary resources,?including instructional software and on-line testing/evaluation tools.

LIST OF SYMBOLS xxi

1. Introduction 1

Learning Objectives 2

1.1 Historical Perspective 2

1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 2

1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 4

Case Study—Liberty Ship Failures 5

1.4 Classification of Materials 6

Case Study—Carbonated Beverage Containers 11

1.5 Advanced Materials 12

1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 14

1.7 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Correlations 15

Summary 17

References 17

Questions 18

2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 19

Learning Objectives 20

2.1 Introduction 20

ATOMIC STRUCTURE 20

2.2 Fundamental Concepts 20

2.3 Electrons in Atoms 22

2.4 The Periodic Table 28

ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 30

2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 30

2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 32

2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 39

Materials of Importance—Water (Its Volume Expansion Upon Freezing) 42

2.8 Mixed Bonding 43

2.9 Molecules 44

2.10 Bonding Type-Materials Classification Correlations 44

Summary 45

Equation Summary 46

List of Symbols 46

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 47

Important Terms and Concepts 47

References 47

Questions and Problems 48

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 50

3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 51

Learning Objectives 52

3.1 Introduction 52

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 52

3.2 Fundamental Concepts 52

3.3 Unit Cells 53

3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 54

3.5 Density Computations 60

3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 60

Materials of Importance—Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 61

3.7 Crystal Systems 62

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 64

3.8 Point Coordinates 64

3.9 Crystallographic Directions 67

3.10 Crystallographic Planes 75

3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 81

3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 82

CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 84

3.13 Single Crystals 84

3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 84

3.15 Anisotropy 86

3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 87

3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 92

Summary 93

Equation Summary 95

List of Symbols 96

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 96

Important Terms and Concepts 97

References 97

Questions and Problems 97

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 104

4. Imperfections in Solids 105

Learning Objectives 106

4.1 Introduction 106

POINT DEFECTS 106

4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 106

4.3 Impurities in Solids 108

4.4 Specification of Composition 111

MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 115

4.5 Dislocations—Linear Defects 115

4.6 Interfacial Defects 118

Materials of Importance—Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 121

4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 122

4.8 Atomic Vibrations 122

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 123

4.9 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 123

4.10 Microscopic Techniques 124

4.11 Grain-Size Determination 128

Summary 131

Equation Summary 132

List of Symbols 133

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 134

Important Terms and Concepts 135

References 135

Questions and Problems 135

Design Problems 138

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 139

5. Diffusion 140

Learning Objectives 141

5.1 Introduction 141

5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 142

5.3 Fick’s First Law 143

5.4 Fick’s Second Law—Nonsteady-State Diffusion 145

5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 149

5.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 154

Material of Importance—Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 157

5.7 Other Diffusion Paths 158

Summary 158

Equation Summary 159

List of Symbols 160

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 160

Important Terms and Concepts 162

References 162

Questions and Problems 162

Design Problems 166

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 167

6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 168

Learning Objectives 169

6.1 Introduction 169

6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 170

ELASTIC DEFORMATION 174

6.3 Stress–Strain Behavior 174

6.4 Anelasticity 177

6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 177

PLASTIC DEFORMATION 180

6.6 Tensile Properties 180

6.7 True Stress and Strain 187

6.8 Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation 190

6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 191

6.10 Hardness 191

PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 197

6.11 Variability of Material Properties 197

6.12 Design/Safety Factors 199

Summary 203

Equation Summary 205

List of Symbols 205

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 206

Important Terms and Concepts 206

References 207

Questions and Problems 207

Design Problems 213

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 214

7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 216

Learning Objectives 217

7.1 Introduction 217

DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION 217

7.2 Basic Concepts 218

7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 220

7.4 Slip Systems 221

7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 223

7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials 226

7.7 Deformation by Twinning 228

MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 229

7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 229

7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 231

7.10 Strain Hardening 232

RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 235

7.11 Recovery 235

7.12 Recrystallization 236

7.13 Grain Growth 240

Summary 242

Equation Summary 244

List of Symbols 244

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 245

Important Terms and Concepts 246

References 246

Questions and Problems 246

Design Problems 250

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 250

8. Failure 251

Learning Objectives 252

8.1 Introduction 252

FRACTURE 253

8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 253

8.3 Ductile Fracture 253

8.4 Brittle Fracture 255

8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 257

8.6 Fracture Toughness Testing 265

FATIGUE 270

8.7 Cyclic Stresses 270

8.8 The S–N Curve 272

8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 276

8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 278

8.11 Environmental Effects 280

CREEP 281

8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 281

8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 282

8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 285

8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 286

Summary 287

Equation Summary 290

List of Symbols 290

Important Terms and Concepts 291

References 291

Questions and Problems 291

Design Problems 295

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 296

9. Phase Diagrams 297

Learning Objectives 298

9.1 Introduction 298

DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 298

9.2 Solubility Limit 299

9.3 Phases 300

9.4 Microstructure 300

9.5 Phase Equilibria 300

9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 301

BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 302

9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 303

9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 305

9.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 309

9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 312

9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 312

9.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 318

Materials of Importance—Lead-Free Solders 319

9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 325

9.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 328

9.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 329

9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams 330

9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 330

THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 333

9.18 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 333

9.19 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 336

9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 344

Summary 344

Equation Summary 346

List of Symbols 347

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 347

Important Terms and Concepts 349

References 349

Questions and Problems 349

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 355

10. Phase Transformations: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties 356

Learning Objectives 357

10.1 Introduction 357

PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 357

10.2 Basic Concepts 357

10.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 358

10.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 369

MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN IRON–CARBON ALLOYS 370

10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 370

10.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 381

10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Alloys 384

10.8 Tempered Martensite 388

10.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Alloys 391

Materials of Importance—Shape-Memory Alloys 394

Summary 397

Equation Summary 398

List of Symbols 399

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 399

Important Terms and Concepts 401

References 402

Questions and Problems 402

Design Problems 406

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 406

11. Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys 408

Learning Objectives 409

11.1 Introduction 409

TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 410

11.2 Ferrous Alloys 410

11.3 Nonferrous Alloys 422

Materials of Importance—Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 433

FABRICATION OF METALS 434

11.4 Forming Operations 434

11.5 Casting 436

11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques 437

THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 439

11.7 Annealing Processes 439

11.8 Heat Treatment of Steels 441

11.9 Precipitation Hardening 451

Summary 458

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 460

Important Terms and Concepts 460

References 463

Questions and Problems 463

Design Problems 464

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 466

12. Structures and Properties of Ceramics 467

Learning Objectives 468

12.1 Introduction 468

CERAMIC STRUCTURES 468

12.2 Crystal Structures 469

12.3 Silicate Ceramics 477

12.4 Carbon 481

12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics 482

12.6 Diffusion in Ionic Materials 486

12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 487

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 490

12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 491

12.9 Stress–Strain Behavior 495

12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic Deformation 497

12.11 Miscellaneous Mechanical

Considerations 499

Summary 501

Equation Summary 503

List of Symbols 503

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 503

Important Terms and Concepts 504

References 505

Questions and Problems 505

Design Problems 509

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 509

13. Applications and Processing of Ceramics 510

Learning Objectives 511

13.1 Introduction 511

TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS 512

13.2 Glasses 512

13.3 Glass–Ceramics 512

13.4 Clay Products 514

13.5 Refractories 514

13.6 Abrasives 516

13.7 Cements 517

13.8 Carbons 518

13.9 Advanced Ceramics 521

FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF CERAMICS 525

13.10 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass–Ceramics 526

13.11 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 531

13.12 Powder Pressing 535

13.13 Tape Casting 537

Summary 538

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 540

Important Terms and Concepts 542

References 543

Questions and Problems 543

Design Problem 544

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 544

14. Polymer Structures 545

Learning Objectives 546

14.1 Introduction 546

14.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 546

14.3 Polymer Molecules 549

14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 549

14.5 Molecular Weight 553

14.6 Molecular Shape 556

14.7 Molecular Structure 558

14.8 Molecular Configurations 559

14.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 562

14.10 Copolymers 563

14.11 Polymer Crystallinity 564

14.12 Polymer Crystals 568

14.13 Defects in Polymers 570

14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 571

Summary 573

Equation Summary 575

List of Symbols 575

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 575

Important Terms and Concepts 576

References 576

Questions and Problems 577

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 579

15. Characteristics, Applications, and Processing of Polymers 580

Learning Objectives 581

15.1 Introduction 581

MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS 581

15.2 Stress–Strain Behavior 581

15.3 Macroscopic Deformation 584

15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation 584

15.5 Fracture of Polymers 588

15.6 Miscellaneous Mechanical Characteristics 590

MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 591

15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 591

15.8 Factors That Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 593

Materials of Importance—Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 597

15.9 Deformation of Elastomers 597

CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASSTRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 599

15.10 Crystallization 600

15.11 Melting 601

15.12 The Glass Transition 601

15.13 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 601

15.14 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 603

POLYMER TYPES 605

15.15 Plastics 605

Materials of Importance—Phenolic Billiard Balls 607

15.16 Elastomers 608

15.17 Fibers 610

15.18 Miscellaneous Applications 610

15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials 612

POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING 616

15.20 Polymerization 616

15.21 Polymer Additives 618

15.22 Forming Techniques for Plastics 620

15.23 Fabrication of Elastomers 622

15.24 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 622

Summary 624

Equation Summary 626

List of Symbols 626

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 626

Important Terms and Concepts 629

References 629

Questions and Problems 629

Design Questions 633

Fundamentals of Engineering Question 633

16. Composites 634

Learning Objectives 635

16.1 Introduction 635

PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 637

16.2 Large-Particle Composites 637

16.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 641

FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 642

16.4 Influence of Fiber Length 642

16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 643

16.6 The Fiber Phase 651

16.7 The Matrix Phase 653

16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 653

16.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 659

16.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 660

16.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 662

16.12 Hybrid Composites 662

16.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 663

STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 665

16.14 Laminar Composites 665

16.15 Sandwich Panels 667

Case Study—Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 669

16.16 Nanocomposites 670

Summary 673

Equation Summary 675

List of Symbols 676

Important Terms and Concepts 676

References 676

Questions and Problems 676

Design Problems 679

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 680

17. Corrosion and Degradation of Materials 681

Learning Objectives 682

17.1 Introduction 682

CORROSION OF METALS 683

17.2 Electrochemical Considerations 683

17.3 Corrosion Rates 689

17.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 691

17.5 Passivity 698

17.6 Environmental Effects 699

17.7 Forms of Corrosion 699

17.8 Corrosion Environments 707

17.9 Corrosion Prevention 707

17.10 Oxidation 709

CORROSION OF CERAMIC MATERIALS 712

DEGRADATION OF POLYMERS 713

17.11 Swelling and Dissolution 713

17.12 Bond Rupture 715

17.13 Weathering 716

Summary 717

Equation Summary 719

List of Symbols 719

Important Terms and Concepts 720

References 720

Questions and Problems 721

Design Problems 723

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 724

18. Electrical Properties 725

Learning Objectives 726

18.1 Introduction 726

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION 726

18.2 Ohm’s Law 726

18.3 Electrical Conductivity 727

18.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 728

18.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 728

18.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 730

18.7 Electron Mobility 732

18.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 733

18.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 736

Materials of Importance—Aluminum Electrical Wires 736

SEMICONDUCTIVITY 738

18.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 738

18.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 741

18.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 744

18.13 Factors That Affect Carrier Mobility 745

18.14 The Hall Effect 749

18.15 Semiconductor Devices 751

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN IONIC CERAMICS AND IN POLYMERS 757

18.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 758

18.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 758

DIELECTRIC BEHAVIOR 759

18.18 Capacitance 759

18.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 761

18.20 Types of Polarization 764

18.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 766

18.22 Dielectric Strength 767

18.23 Dielectric Materials 767

OTHER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS 767

18.24 Ferroelectricity 767

18.25 Piezoelectricity 768

Materials of Importance—Piezoelectric Ceramic Ink-Jet Printer Heads 769

Summary 770

Equation Summary 773

List of Symbols 774

Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary 774

Important Terms and Concepts 778

References 778

Questions and Problems 778

Design Problems 782

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 783

19. Thermal Properties 785

Learning Objectives 786

19.1 Introduction 786

19.2 Heat Capacity 786

19.3 Thermal Expansion 790

Materials of Importance—Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 792

19.4 Thermal Conductivity 793

19.5 Thermal Stresses 796

Summary 798

Equation Summary 799

List of Symbols 799

Important Terms and Concepts 800

References 800

Questions and Problems 800

Design Problems 802

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 802

20. Magnetic Properties 803

Learning Objectives 804

20.1 Introduction 804

20.2 Basic Concepts 804

20.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 808

20.4 Ferromagnetism 810

20.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 811

20.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 815

20.7 Domains and Hysteresis 816

20.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 819

20.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 820

Materials of Importance—An Iron–Silicon Alloy Used in Transformer Cores 821

20.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 822

20.11 Magnetic Storage 825

20.12 Superconductivity 828

Summary 831

Equation Summary 833

List of Symbols 833

Important Terms and Concepts 834

References 834

Questions and Problems 834

Design Problems 837

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 837

21. Optical Properties 838

Learning Objectives 839

21.1 Introduction 839

BASIC CONCEPTS 839

21.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 839

21.3 Light Interactions with Solids 841

21.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 842

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS 843

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF NONMETALS 844

21.5 Refraction 844

21.6 Reflection 846

21.7 Absorption 846

21.8 Transmission 850

21.9 Color 850

21.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 852

APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL PHENOMENA 853

21.11 Luminescence 853

21.12 Photoconductivity 853

Materials of Importance—Light-Emitting Diodes 854

21.13 Lasers 856

21.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 860

Summary 862

Equation Summary 864

List of Symbols 865

Important Terms and Concepts 865

References 865

Questions and Problems 866

Design Problem 867

Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems 867

22. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 868

Learning Objectives 869

22.1 Introduction 869

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS 869

22.2 Component Design 870

22.3 Materials 870

22.4 Manufacturing Techniques 870

ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIETAL CONSIDERATIONS 871

22.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 873

Materials of Importance—Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics 876

Summary 878

References 879

Design Questions 879

Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) 880

Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials 882

B.1 Density 882

B.2 Modulus of Elasticity 885

B.3 Poisson’s Ratio 889

B.4 Strength and Ductility 890

B.5 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness 895

B.6 Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 897

B.7 Thermal Conductivity 900

B.8 Specific Heat 903

B.9 Electrical Resistivity 906

B.10 Metal Alloy Compositions 909

Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials 911

Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers 916

Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials 920

Glossary 921

Answers to Selected Problems 934

Index 939