Fish Processing – Sustainability and New Opportunities

Dr George M. Hall, Research Fellow, Centre for Sustainable Development, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK

Preface Contributors 1 Introduction: Challenges to the Fish-Processing Industry in a Resource-Starved World George M. Hall 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Defining sustainability 1.1.2 Sustainable development concepts for FPI 1.2 Sustainability tools 1.2.1 Carbon footprinting 1.2.2 Carbon labelling 1.2.3 Life cycle assessment 1.2.4 The supply chain 1.3 Climate change 1.4 The capture fishery 1.4.1 Current production levels 1.4.2 Future trends and fisheries management 1.5 Contribution of aquaculture 1.5.1 Current production levels 1.5.2 Future trends 1.5.3 Barriers to increased production 1.6 Industrial fish production 1.6.1 Current levels 1.6.2 Future trends 1.6.3 Redefining industrial species 1.7 Implications for the processing industry 1.7.1 Efficiency in processing 1.7.2 Food security and trade 1.7.3 Introducing new food species 1.7.4 Post-harvest losses 1.7.5 Environmental impact of fish processing 1.8 Conclusion: sustainability in the fish-processing industry References 2 Canning Fish and Fish Products George M. Hall 2.1 Principles of canning 2.1.1 Thermal destruction of fish-borne bacteria 2.1.2 Quality criteria for thermally processed fish 2.2 Packaging materials 2.2.1 Glass jars 2.2.2 Rigid metal containers 2.2.3 Rigid plastic containers 2.2.4 Flexible containers (pouches) 2.2.5 Environmental issues related to packaging materials 2.3 Processing operations 2.3.1 Pre-processing operations 2.3.2 Heat-processing operations 2.3.3 Post-processing operations 2.3.4 Environmental issues and process optimization 2.4 Canning of specific species 2.4.1 Small pelagics 2.4.2 Tuna and mackerel 2.4.3 Crustacea 2.5 Conclusions References 3 Preservation by Curing (Drying, Salting and Smoking) George M. Hall 3.1 Basic relationships 3.1.1 Water activity and spoilage 3.1.2 Product quality 3.2 Drying 3.2.1 Air- or contact drying 3.2.2 Improving the efficiency of drying 3.3 Salting 3.3.1 Wet and dry salting 3.3.2 Quality aspects 3.4 Smoking 3.4.1 The preservative effect 3.4.2 Quality aspects 3.4.3 Smoking systems and equipment 3.4.4 Traditional systems 3.4.5 Fuel wood for traditional fish smoking 3.5 Post-harvest losses in fish smoking 3.5.1 Sustainable livelihoods approach 3.5.2 Assessing post-harvest fisheries losses 3.6 Sustainability issues References 4 Freezing and Chilling of Fish and Fish Products George M. Hall 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Freezing time calculations 4.1.2 Effect of freezing on micro-organisms and parasites 4.1.3 Physico-chemical effects during freezing 4.1.4 Temperature modelling in fish transportation 4.2 Freezing systems 4.2.1 The refrigeration cycle 4.2.2 Classification of freezers 4.2.3 Air-blast freezers 4.2.4 Immersion freezers 4.2.5 Plate freezers 4.2.6 Cryogenic freezers 4.3 Environmental impact of freezing operations 4.3.1 Energy efficiency of freezing systems 4.3.2 Cold storage systems 4.3.3 Refrigerants and cryogens 4.3.4 New refrigeration techniques 4.3.5 Environmental impact of freezer/cold storage buildings 4.4 Life cycle assessment and the supply chain References 5 Surimi and Fish Mince Products George M. Hall 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Fish muscle proteins 5.1.2 Important protein properties in surimi processing 5.1.3 Appropriate species for surimi production 5.1.4 Surimi quality and sustainability 5.2 The surimi process 5.2.1 Basic process elements 5.2.2 Energy consumption 5.2.3 Water consumption 5.2.4 By-product development 5.3 Fish mince processing References 6 Sustainability Impacts of Fish-Processing Operations George M. Hall 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Sustainability issues 6.2.1 Sustainability and legislation 6.2.2 Energy 6.2.3 Water 6.2.4 Effluents 6.2.5 By-product development 6.3 Individual processes 6.4 Life cycle assessment 6.4.1 Background 6.4.2 Application to fish-processing operations 6.4.3 Development of LCA for fishing activity 6.5 Supply chain analysis 6.6 Cleaner production 6.7 Processing in a changing world References 7 Sustainability of Fermented Fish Products S. Kose and George M. Hall 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Principles of the fermentation process 7.2.1 Metabolic activity of LAB 7.2.2 The genera of LAB 7.2.3 Other issues relating to fermentation process 7.2.4 Inhibitory effects of LAB 7.3 Definition and classification of fermented fish products 7.3.1 Definition 7.3.2 Classification 7.4 Types of fermented fish products 7.4.1 European products 7.4.2 South-East Asian products 7.4.3 Fermented fish products of Africa 7.5 Quality and standards of fermented fish products 7.5.1 Salting procedures 7.5.2 Micro-organisms 7.5.3 Fish enzymes 7.5.4 Temperature during fermentation 7.5.5 Nutritional issues 7.5.6 Flavour 7.5.7 Presence of lipids 7.5.8 Colour 7.5.9 Other characteristics 7.6 Safety issues related to fermented fish products 7.6.1 Pathogenic bacteria 7.6.2 Parasites 7.6.3 Histamine and other biogenic amines 7.7 Conclusions Acknowledgements References 8 On-board Fish Processing S. Kose 8.1 Introduction 8.2 On-board processing 8.2.1 Types of plants processing at sea 8.2.2 Tenders 8.2.3 History of on-board processing 8.2.4 Species and products processed at sea 8.3 Advantages of on-board processing 8.4 Quality issues related to on-board processing 8.4.1 Introduction to quality issues for fisheries products 8.4.2 Receiving and handling raw materials 8.4.3 Quality issues during processing 8.4.4 Quality issues during storage and transport 8.5 Sustainable issues Acknowledgements References 9 Fishmeal Production and Sustainability George M. Hall 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Fishmeal production 9.1.2 Conversion efficiency of fishmeal and fish oil 9.1.3 Nutritional value of fishmeal and fish oil 9.2 The fishmeal process 9.2.1 Raw material unloading 9.2.2 The cooker 9.2.3 The press 9.2.4 The decanter 9.2.5 Separators and purifiers 9.2.6 Evaporators 9.2.7 The drier 9.2.8 Post-production operations 9.2.9 Conclusions 9.3 Sustainability issues 9.3.1 Energy 9.3.2 Water 9.3.3 Effluents 9.3.4 By-products 9.3.5 Cleaner production 9.3.6 Life cycle assessment of the fishmeal and fish oil process 9.4 Alternatives to fishmeal 9.4.1 Fish silage 9.4.2 Fish protein hydrolysates 9.4.3 Plant-based alternatives to fishmeal 9.5 Conclusions References 10 Utilization of Fish Processing By-products for Bioactive Compounds K. Shirai and J. C. Ramirez-Ramirez 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Raw material chemical composition 10.3 Protein hydrolysates and peptides 10.3.1 General aspects and production 10.3.2 FPH composition and use as food ingredient 10.3.3 FPH and peptide applications 10.3.4 Therapeutic and health-promoting properties 10.4 Collagen and gelatin 10.4.1 Extraction conditions of fish collagens and gelatins 10.4.2 Functional properties 10.4.3 Therapeutic properties 10.5 Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in fish 10.5.1 Composition 10.5.2 Extraction 10.5.3 Therapeutic properties 10.6 Concluding remarks Acknowledgements References 11 Life Cycle Assessment of Bulk Packaging Used to Transport Fresh Fish Products: Case Study K. S. Williams 11.1 Introduction 11.1.1 Background to UK waste and sustainability 11.2 UK fishing industry 11.2.1 Transportation of fish products 11.2.2 Packaging of fish 11.2.3 Types of packaging 11.3 Life cycle assessment 11.3.1 Methodology 11.4 Case study: Rainbow Seafood EPS and PP fish boxes 11.4.1 Company profile 11.4.2 Context of the study 11.4.3 Methodology 11.5 System design 11.6 Data acquisition 11.7 Life cycle inventory 11.8 Life cycle impact assessment 11.9 Results and recommendations 11.10 Conclusions Acknowledgement References Index