The Adolescent

Contents

Features  xi

Preface  xiii

       Part One        Adolescence

Chapter 1 Adolescents in Social Context  1

Approaches to Studying Adolescence  3

The Changing Face of American Adolescence  4

Our Society in Revolution  4

The Prolongation of Adolescence  7

The Revolution in Information Technology  7

The Internet  7

Potential Hazards of Internet Use  8

The Revolution in the Workplace  9

Multiple Jobholders and Overtime Work  9

Working Women  10

Adolescent Employment  10

Advertising and Consumption  11

The Education Revolution  11

Educational Attainment  11

Embracing the New Technology  11

Innovations in Career Education  12

The Family Revolution  12

Changes in Marriage and Parenthood  12

Changes in Family Dynamics  14

The Sexual Revolution  16

Positive Effects of the Sexual Revolution  16

Negative Effects of the Sexual Revolution  16

The Violence Revolution  17

Violent Crime  18

Violence in Society  18

Violence in the Home  19

Violent Deaths  19

A Caveat to Understanding Adolescence  19

 

Chapter 2 Adolescents in Theoretical Context  24

Biological Views of Adolescence  26

G. Stanley Hall: Sturm und Drang  26

Arnold Gesell: Spiral Growth Patterns  27

Psychoanalytical and Psychosocial Views
of Adolescence  27

Sigmund Freud: Individuation  27

Anna Freud: Defense Mechanisms  29

Erik Erikson: Ego Identity  30

Cognitive Views of Adolescence  32

Jean Piaget: Adaptation and Equilibrium  32

Robert Selman: Social Cognition  34

Lev Vygotsky: Social Influences on Cognition  36

Social-Cognitive Learning View of Adolescence  37

Albert Bandura: Social Learning Theory  37

Social-Cognitive Theory  38

The Impact of Culture on Adolescents  38

Robert Havighurst: Developmental Tasks  38

Kurt Lewin: Field Theory  40

Urie Bronfenbrenner: An Ecological Model  41

Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict: Anthropological Views  42

 

Chapter 3 Adolescent Diversity: Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity  48

Adolescents of Low Socioeconomic Status  50

Limitations of Low Socioeconomic Status  51

Cycle of Poverty and Deprivation  51

Minority Adolescents  55

African American Adolescents  56

Latino Adolescents  60

Native American Adolescents  64

Asian-American Adolescents  67

Immigrants and Refugees  68

Southeast Asian Refugee Experience  69

 

PART TWO          PHYSICAL

 

Chapter 4 Body Issues: Sexual Maturation and Physical Growth  74

Biochemical Basis of Puberty  76

The Hypothalamus  76

The Pituitary Gland  76

The Gonads  77

The Adrenal Glands  78

Sex Hormone Regulation in Males  78

Sex Hormone Regulation in Females  78

Maturation and Functions of Male Sex Organs  79

Spermatogenesis  80

The Developing Penis  80

The Cowper’s Glands  81

Nocturnal Emissions  82

Maturation and Functions of Female Sex Organs  82

The Developing Vagina  82

Changes in the Vulva and Uterus  82

Ovarian Changes  82

Menarche and the Menstrual Cycle  82

Menstrual Concerns  86

Development of Secondary Sexual Characteristics  87

Males  88

Females  88

Results of Sexual Maturation  90

Growth in Height and Weight  90

Growth Trends  91

Determinants of Height  91

Other Physical Changes  91

 

Chapter 5 Body Issues: Health-Related Behaviors and Attitudes  94

Health Status  96

Mortality  96

Health Decisions  96

Adolescent Health in the Third World  98

Body Image  98

Physical Attractiveness  98

Body Types and Ideals  99

Early and Late Maturation  101

Early-Maturing Boys  101

Late-Maturing Boys  101

Early-Maturing Girls  103

Late-Maturing Girls  103

Off-Time Maturation  103

Weight  104

Personal Contributors to Being Overweight  104

Interpersonal Interactions and Being Overweight  105

Environmental Influences  106

Broader Social Influences  106

Eating Disorders  106

Anorexia Nervosa  106

Bulimia  108

Health-Related Behaviors  109

Nutrition  109

Exercise  111

Sleep  112

Acne  112

Skin Gland Development  113

Causes  113

Treatment  113

 

PART THREE       INTELLECTUAL

 

Chapter 6 Traditional Approaches to Cognitive Development: Piaget and Elkind  116

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development  118

Sensorimotor Stage  118

Preoperational Stage  119

Concrete Operational Stage  120

Formal Operational Stage  122

Effects of Adolescent Thought on Personality
and Behavior  125

Idealism  125

Long-Term Values  126

Hypocrisy  126

Pseudostupidity  127

Egocentrism  127

Introspection  129

Self-Concept  129

Critique of Piaget’s Theory  129

Criticisms of Piaget’s First Two Stages  129

Age and Development  129

Consistency  130

Beyond Formal Operations  130

Culture and Environment  130

Motivation and Response  131

What Can We Retain from Formal Operations?  132

 

Chapter 7 New Approaches to Cognitive Development: Information Processing, Decision Making, and Assessment Issues  136

Information Processing  138

Steps in Information Processing  138

Processing Speed  141

Higher-Order Thought Processes  141

Problem Solving  143

The Role of Knowledge  143

Decision Making  143

The Process  143

The Nine Cs of Decision Making  144

Epistemological Understanding  146

Brain Development during Adolescence  147

Assessing Cognition  148

Theories of Intelligence  149

Intelligence Tests  151

Changes with Age  151

Factors Influencing Test Results  151

Uses and Misuses of IQ Tests  153

Achievement Tests  154

The Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)  154

 

PART FOUR         PSYCHOSOCIAL

 

Chapter 8 Self-Concept, Identity, Ethnicity, and Gender  158

Self-Concept and Self-Esteem  160

Importance of Having a Good Self-Concept  161

Self-Esteem  162

Mental Health  163

Interpersonal Competence and Popularity  163

Progress in School  163

Vocational Aspirations  164

Delinquency  164

Development of a Positive Self-Concept  165

Changes in Self-Concept during Adolescence  168

Identity  168

Seven Conflicts  169

Identity Status  170

Identity as a Process  174

Ethnic Identity  175

Gender  178

Biological Sex  178

Cognitive-Developmental Theories  179

Societal Influences  179

Androgyny  182

Gender in Adolescence  182

 

Chapter 9 Sexual Values and Behavior  186

Changing Attitudes and Behavior  188

Premarital Sexual Behavior  188

Correlates  190

Other Mutual Sexual Behaviors  192

Masturbation  193

Sex and Its Meaning  193

What Are Adolescents Seeking?  193

Sexual Pluralism  193

Gender Differences in Sexual Ethics  195

Sexual Aggression  196

Contraceptives and Sexually Transmitted Diseases  197

Use of Contraceptives among Adolescents  197

Why Contraceptives Are Not Used  200

Should Adolescents Have Contraceptives?  200

Sexually Transmitted Diseases  201

AIDS  202

Unwed Pregnancy and Abortion  205

Incidence of Teen Pregnancy  205

Causation Theories  206

Pregnancy-Resolution Decisions  207

Adolescent Mothers  208

Adolescent Fathers  209

Homosexuality  210

Causation Theories  211

Identity Adjustment  213

Sex Knowledge and Sex Education  214

Sources of Sex Information  215

The Role of Parents  215

The Role of Schools  216

                

PART FIVE               FAMILIAL

 

Chapter 10 Adolescents and their Families  222

Parenting Adolescents  224

What Kinds of Parents Do Adolescents Want?  224

Connection  224

Trust  228

Attachment Style  228

Autonomy  228

Regulation  230

Parent-Adolescent Tension  234

Differences in Outlook  234

Focus of Conflict  235

Variables Affecting Conflict  236

Conflicts with Parents versus Conflicts with Peers  237

Results of Conflict  237

Relationships with Other Family Members  238

Adolescent-Sibling Relationships  238

Relationships with Other Relatives  239

Maltreatment  240

Physical Abuse  240

Sexual Abuse  240

Incest  241

Neglect  241

 

Chapter 11 Divorced, Parent-Absent, and Blended Families  244

With Whom Do American Adolescents Live?  246

Divorce and Adolescents  247

Attitudes toward Divorce  247

Short-Term Emotional Reactions  247

Long-Term Effects  249

Factors Influencing the Effects of Divorce  251

Single-Parent/Grandparent-Headed Families  255

Single-Parent Families Resulting from Parental Death  257

Effects of Being Raised in a One-Parent Family  258

Development of Masculinity/Femininity  258

Influences on School Performance, Achievement, and Vocation  259

Blended Families  259

Adopted Adolescents  263

               

PART SIX             SOCIAL

 

Chapter 12 Social Development: The Changing Nature of Friendship and Romance  266

Companionship  268

The Need for Friends  268

Loneliness  269

Family and Peer Relationships  270

Early Adolescent Friendships  270

Broadening Early Friendships  272

Friendship Activities  272

Group Acceptance and Popularity  273

What Does It Take to Be Popular?  273

Routes to Social Acceptance  274

The Darker Side of Peer Interactions: Bullying  276

Heterosociality  278

Psychosocial Development  278

Adolescent Love and Crushes  280

Loss of Love  280

Dating  281

The Development of Dating  282

Violence  283

“Going Together”  284

Nonmarital Cohabitation  285

Incidence  285

Meanings Attached to Cohabitation  285

Cohabitation versus Dating  287

Adjustments to Cohabitation  287

Effects on Subsequent Marriage  288

Cohabitation and Premarital Childbearing  288

Adolescent Marriage  289

Trends and Incidence  289

Prospects and Prognosis  290

A Profile of the Young Married  290

Reasons for Adolescent Marriage  290

Adjustments and Problems  291

Early Marriage and Education  293

 

Chapter 13 Adolescent Society, Culture, and Subculture  296

Culture and Society  298

The Adolescent Subculture  298

A False Dichotomy  298

Distinctive Social Relationships and Culture  299

Adolescent Societies  299

Formal Societies  299

Informal Societies  300

Division by Grade  300

Social Class and Status  300

Formal and Semiformal Subsystems  300

The Formal Academic Subsystem  300

The Semiformal Activities Subsystem  301

The Friendship Subsystem  302

Notable Youth Subcultures  303

Flappers  303

Hippies  304

Skateboarders  304

Hip-Hop  305

Goths  305

Material Concerns of Adolescent Culture  306

Adolescents as Consumer Forces  306

Clothing  307

Automobiles  309

Cell Phones  310

Computers and the Internet  311

Nonmaterial Concerns of Adolescent Culture  313

Slang  313

Music  313

 

Chapter 14 The Development of Moral Values  320

Cognitive-Socialization Theories of Development  322

Kohlberg and Levels of Moral Development  324

Gilligan and Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning  328

The Social-Cognitive Domain Approach to Moral Reasoning  329

Moral Reasoning and Prosocial Behavior  330

Family Factors and Moral Learning  332

The Family’s Role  332

Extrafamilial Influences on Morality  334

Peers  334

Religion  334

Television  336

Moral Education  339

Part Seven         Educational and Vocational

 

Chapter 15 Education and School  344

Trends in U.S. Education  346

Traditionalists versus Progressives  346

Rise of Progressive Education  346

Sputnik and After  346

1960s and 1970s  346

1980s  347

1990s  348

Early Twenty-First Century  349

Middle Schools  349

Characteristics of Good Schools  351

Size  352

Atmosphere  352

Teachers  353

Curriculum  354

Private versus Public Schools  355

Achievement and Dropping Out  356

Enrollment Figures  356

Who Drops Out and Why  356

Dropouts and Employment  362

 

Chapter 16 Work and Vocation  366

Motives for Choice  368

Theories of Vocational Choice  368

Ginzberg’s Compromise with Reality Theory  368

Holland’s Occupational Environment Theory  371

Gati’s Sequential Elimination Model  372

People Influencing Vocational Choice  372

Parents  372

Peers  374

School Personnel  374

Gender Roles and Vocational Choice  374

Other Crucial Determinants of Vocational Choice  377

Intelligence  377

Aptitudes and Special Abilities  378

Interests  378

Job Opportunities  379

Salary  380

Prestige  380

Socioeconomic Factors  380

Familiarity  380

Social Status and Aspirations  380

Race/Ethnicity and Aspirations  381

Youth Employment  381

Working for Wages  381

Volunteerism  385

Adolescents and Unemployment  386

Numbers of Unemployed Youths  386

Causes of Unemployment  386

Career Education  387

                

PART EIGHT            PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS

 

Chapter 17 Adolescent Alienation  392

Running Away  394

Classes of Runaways  394

Reasons for Running Away  394

Throwaways  396

Life on the Street  396

Help for Runaways  396

Worldwide Scope  397

Suicide  397

Frequency of Suicide  397

Causes and Motives of Suicide  399

Copycat Suicides  403

Unsuccessful Attempts  403

Survivors  404

Juvenile Delinquency  404

Incidence of Delinquency  404

Causes of Delinquency  406

Juvenile Gangs  409

The Juvenile Justice System  411

The Restorative Justice Movement  414

Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency  414

 

Chapter 18 Substance Abuse, Addiction, and Dependency  418

Drug Use and Abuse  420

Physical Addiction and Psychological Dependency  420

Patterns and Intensity of Drug Use  420

Types of Drugs  421

Frequency of Adolescent Drug Use  427

Reasons for First Drug Use  429

Demographic Differences  430

Compulsive Drug Use  430

Prevention and Treatment  431

Tobacco and Smoking  435

Incidence of Tobacco Use  435

Reasons Adolescents Start Smoking  435

Effects of Cigarette Advertising  436

Reasons Adolescents Continue Smoking  437

Smokeless Tobacco  437

Keeping Adolescents from Starting  438

Alcohol and Excessive Drinking  439

Incidence of Alcohol Abuse  439

Reasons for Drinking during Adolescence  440

Adult and Peer Influences  441

Physical Consequences of Alcohol Use  442

Drinking in Young Adulthood  442

Epilogue  446

Glossary  448

Bibliography  453

Index  506