Political Campaign Communication

Robert E. Denton Jr. holds the W. Thomas Rice Chair of Leadership Studies in the Pamplin College of Business and is professor in the Department of Communication at Virginia Tech. He has degrees in political science and communication from Wake Forest University and Purdue University. In addition to numerous articles, essays, and book chapters, he is author, coauthor, or editor of thirty books, several in multiple editions. Ben Voth is associate professor and director of speech and debate at the SMU Dedman College of Humanities and Sciences. He is author of Rwanda Rising: Debate as an Empowering International Pedagogy and the Rhetoric of Genocide: Death as a Text, as well as co-author with Robert E. Denton of Social Fragmentation and the Decline of American Democracy: The End of the Social Contract. Judith S. Trent was professor emerita of communication at the University of Cincinnati. She was the author of numerous books, book chapters, and journal articles. She wrote and spoke widely on the subject of political campaign communication and was a frequent commentator and analyst on political campaigns and candidates for the ABC, NBC, and CBS television affiliates in Cincinnati, as well as Ohio/Cincinnati newspapers. Robert V. Friedenberg is professor emeritus of communication at Miami (Ohio) University. He is the author of numerous books, book chapters, and articles. He has served as a communication consultant for the Republican National Committee and has been involved in more than seventy political campaigns.

Preface

1 The Campaign Communications Landscape

Importance of Political Campaigns

Changes in the Political Campaign

Decline of Political Parties

Finance Reforms

Political Action Committees

Technology

Communication and Political Campaigns

Essential Elements of Political Campaigns

Organization and Preview of Chapters

2 Communicative Functions of Campaigns

First Political Stage: Surfacing

Demonstrating Fitness for Office

Initiating Political Rituals

Learning about a Candidate

Developing Voter Expectations of a Candidate’s Style

Determining Main Campaign Ideas

Selecting Serious Contenders

Establishing Candidate-Media Relationships

Second Political Stage: Primaries

A Source of Feedback for the Candidates

A Source of Information for Voters

Citizen Involvement in the Political Press

Promises Made in Personalized Settings

Determination of the True Front-Runners

Third Political Stage: Nominating Conventions

The Evolution of Change of Political Conventions

Reaffirming and Legitimizing the Electoral Process

Legitimizing the Party Nominees

Demonstrating Party Unity

Introducing the Candidate’s Campaign Themes and Issues

Fourth Political Stage: The General Election

Gaining Information

Legitimizing the Political System

Meeting Campaign Expectations

The Fifth Political Stage: Post Election

Conclusions

3 Communicative Styles and Strategies of Campaigns

Preliminary Considerations

Style

Image and Campaign Style

Technology and Campaign Style

Styles and Strategies of Campaigns

Incumbency Style

Symbolic Strategies

Symbolic Strategies of the Office

Legitimacy of the Office

Competency and the Office

Charisma and the Office

Pragmatic Strategies

Creating Pseudoevents

Making Appointments to Jobs and Committees

Creating Special Task Forces

Appropriating Funds/Grants

Consulting with World Leaders

Manipulating Important Domestic Issues

Receiving Endorsements from Other Leaders

Emphasizing Accomplishments

Creating an Image of Being Above the Political Trenches

Interpreting or Intensifying Foreign Policy Problems into International Crises

Summary

Disadvantages to Incumbency Campaigning

Challenger Style

Attacking the Record

Taking the Offensive Position on Issues

Calling for a Change

Emphasizing Optimism for the Future

Taking the Offensive Position on Issues

Calling for a Change

Emphasizing Optimism for the Future

Speaking to Traditional Values

Appearing to Represent the Philosophical Center

Delegating Personal or Harsh Attacks

Summary

Incumbent/Challenger: A Merger of Styles

Conclusions

4 Communicative Mass Channels of Campaigns

Early Studies

Early American Adaptation of Public Relations and Propaganda

Hypodermic Effect

Limited Effects or the Social Influence Model

Contemporary Studies

Diffusion of Information

Uses and Gratifications

Elaboration Likelihood

Agenda-Setting Hypothesis

Reconceptualization of the Classics

21st Century Mass Channels of Political Campaign

Conclusions

5 Communicative Types and Functions of Televised Campaign Advertising

Historical Development

Understanding Theory and Praxis Regarding Televisual Attack and Defense

Ads Extolling the Candidate’s Virtues

Ads Condemning/Attacking/Questioning the Opponent

Ads Responding the Attacks or Innuendos

Final Questions: How Effective Is Television Advertising and Do Televised Attack Ads Work?

Does Money Equate to Effectiveness in Advertising?

Televised Comedy as Political Advertising

Conclusions

6 Ethical Considerations of Campaign Communication

Age of Citizen Mistrust, Polarization, and Cynicism

A “Philosophy” of Political Campaign Ethics

Campaigns and Ethics

Ethical Pivots

Areas of Ethical Concerns in Political Campaign Communication

News Media and Journalism

Political Advertising

Rejecting the False Model of Political Campaign Ethics: Alinsky

Toward a Model of Political Campaign Communication Ethics

Conclusions

7 Public Speaking in Campaigns

The Decision to Speak

Audiences

Messages

Competency and Format

Campaign Messages

Incumbent/Challenger Strategies

The Speech

Need and Justification

Stock Speeches: Utilizing Speech Modules

Speech-Like Opportunities and Modular Speech

Speaking Style: Extemporaneous or Prepared

Stock Speeches: The Basic Stump Speech

Stock Speeches: The “Why I am Running” Speech

Political Speechwriting

Justification and Implications of Political Speechwriting

Job Demands

Speechwriting Teams

Methods of Political Speechwriting

Surrogate Speakers

Selection of Surrogates

Benefits of Surrogates

Viral Speech Videos

Conclusions

8 Recurring Forms of Political Communication

Announcement Speeches

Preannouncement Situation

Purpose of Address

Strategies of Address

Acceptance Addresses

Situation during Address

Purpose of Address

Strategies of Address

Using Simplified Partisan Statements

Lamenting the Present while Celebrating the Future

Stressing the Crucial Nature of the Election

Calling for Unity

Using Biography

Using Biography to Go Negative

Summary

News Conferences

Situation for News Conferences

Purposes of News Conferences

Strategies of News Conferences

Apologias

Situation for an Apologia

Purposes of Apologia

Strategies of Apologia

Control of the Apologia Setting

Denial

Bolstering

Differentiation

Transcendental Strategy

Confession

Summary

Conclusions

9 Debates in Campaigns

History of Political Debates

Deciding Whether to Debate

Political Debate Strategies

Pre-Debate Strategies

Lowering Public Expectations

Determining the Target Audience

Devising and Rehearsing Possible Answers

Determining the Target Audience

Devising and Rehearsing Possible Answers

Debate Strategies

Relating Issues to an Overall Theme

Developing an Image

Post-Debate Strategies

Offering a Large, Well-Coordinated Surrogate Effort

Using Ads to Underscore Debate Themes

Using Audience Members to Project a Positive View

Effects of Political Debates

Increased Audiences

Reinforce Audience Opinions

Shift Limited Numbers of Voters

Help Set Voters’ Agenda

Increase the Voter’s Knowledge of Issues

Modify Candidate Images

Build Confidence in U.S. Democracy

Suggestions for Improving Presidential Debates

Conclusions

10 Interpersonal Communication in Campaigns

Interpersonal Communication between Candidate and Voters

Micro-targeting

Special Events

Public Appearances

Dinners

Coffees and Receptions

Door-to-Door Canvasses

Phone Banks

The Internet

Interpersonal Communication between the Candidate and Prospective Financial Contributors

The Importance of Individual Contributors

The Role of Attraction

Interpersonal Communication between Voters

Importance

Discussion Topics

Interpersonal Communication among Voters, Mass Media, and Voting Behavior

Interpersonal Communication and Getting-Out-the-Vote Efforts

Behavioral Characteristics of Successful Interpersonal Campaigners

Conclusions

11 Advertising in Campaigns

Developing a Master Plan for Political Advertising

Basic Considerations in the Selection of Political Advertising Media

Direct Mail

Telephone Contact Services

Radio

Television

The Internet

Making Television Ads

Targeting of Television Ads

Campaign Advertising Strategies

Media Concentration and Media Dispersion

Continuity Scheduling, Flight Scheduling, and Pulse Scheduling

The Spurt Strategy

The Fast Finish Strategy

The Really Big Show Strategy

The Cruise Control Strategy

Media and Other Types of Political Consultants

History of Political Consulting

Functions of Political Consultants

Writers

Speech Coaches

Direct Mail Specialists

Conclusions

12 The Internet and Social Media in Campaigns

Historical Overview of Campaigns and New Communication Technologies

Social Media in Campaigns

Social Media and Digital Strategies

Blogs

Email

Mobile Devices

Text Messaging

Web 2.0

Social Media

Facebook

YouTube

MySpace

Twitter

Pinterest

Tumblr

Reddit

Snapchat

Instagram

TikTok

ChatGPT

Conclusions

13 Journalism and Fake News in Campaigns

The Transition of American Journalism

Sources of Political News

Trust in News

How Media Cover Presidential Campaigns

The Path to Fake News and Misinformation

Effects of Fake News and Misinformation

Identifying Fake News and Misinformation

Conclusions

14 Campaigning for Local Elections and Offices

Early Considerations

Campaign Organization

Campaign Plan

Campaign Messaging

Slogans

Campaign Colors

Logo

Issues

Opposition Research

Media and Tactics

Announcing Candidacy

Candidate Coffees and Receptions

Trinkets

Yard Signs

Letters

Flyers and Handouts

Door to Door/Neighborhood Walks

Literature Drops

Debates

Media Coverage

News Releases

News Conferences

Letters to the Editor

Editorial Boards

Direct Mail

Broadcast Media

Internet/Web

Conclusions

Index

About the Authors