Kirsty Williamson has focused her career almost entirely on research since 1996 when she obtained her PhD. For much of that time she was Director of the research group, Information and Telecommunications Needs Research (ITNR), a joint initiative of Monash University and Charles Sturt University in Australia. She has undertaken many research projects and has received many research grants from a range of different non-government and government organisations, including the principal funding body of Australian Universities, the Australian Research Council (ARC). Her research has been widely published.
Research is such an important subject for information professionals that there will always be a need for effective guides to it. Research skills are a prerequisite for those who want to work successfully in information environments, an essential set of tools which enable information workers to become information professionals. This book focuses on producing critical consumers of research. It also goes some way towards producing researchers in the fields of information management and systems.The first edition of this book was enthusiastically received by researchers, students and information professionals in Australia and beyond. Reviews of the first edition considered it a "e;a worthwhile addition to any information professional's or research student's reference shelf (Archives & Manuscripts). This new edition has an additional chapter on ethics, to address the importance of the ethical implications of research. It also has (as did the first edition) two unique characteristics: it is Australian-focused, distinctive among research texts for information professionals; and it has a multi-disciplinary focus, with its authors being drawn from information management (librarianship, archives and recordkeeping) and information systems. The numerous examples throughout the book are drawn from these multiple disciplines. The first edition of this book was road-tested with students from several disciplines who are studying in several universities. Its Introduction noted that "e;In research terms, the content have been refereed and found to be authoritative!"e; To this can be added the many satisfied users of the first edition.
Front Cover
1
Research Methods for Students, Academics and Professionals: Information Management and Systems 4
Copyright Page
5
Table of Contents 6
List of figures, tables and boxes 10
Acknowledgments 12
Introduction 14
Research and professional practice 14
A multi-disciplinary approach 15
How to use this book 16
What the book does not cover 17
Warranty statement 17
References for Introduction 17
Section 1: Introduction to research methods 20
Introduction 22
CHAPTER 1. Introduction to research in relation to professional practice 24
Objectives 24
Introduction 24
What is research? 25
The major elements of a research project or proposal 29
The role which research can and should play in professional practice 30
Conclusion 37
Discussion questions 38
Further readings 38
References for Chapter 1 38
CHAPTER 2. The two major traditions of research 44
Objectives 44
Introduction: The two major traditions of research 44
Reasoning styles 45
Positivism and post-positivism 46
Interpretivism 49
Combining quantitative and qualitative methods 53
Summary of research approaches 56
Examples of quantitative and qualitative research in professional practice 57
Discussion questions 61
Further readings 61
References for Chapter 2 62
CHAPTER 3. The beginning stages of research 68
Objectives 68
Research problems and research questions 68
Hypotheses: Their role in research and their formulation 73
Theory: Its role in research and its development 77
The literature review 80
Conclusion 83
Discussion questions 83
Further readings 83
References for Chapter 3 84
CHAPTER 4. Ethics in research 86
Objectives 86
The practice of ethics in research 86
Social ideals and research 88
Principles and ethical codes 89
Ethics committees 91
Power and influence 92
Publishing research 92
Hypothetical dilemmas: links between practice, ethics and research 93
Conclusion 99
Further readings 99
References for Chapter 4 100
Section 2: Methods 104
Introduction 106
CHAPTER 5. Survey research 108
Objectives 108
Introduction to survey research 108
Sampling and the ability to generalise in survey research 108
Descriptive (or status) surveys 110
Explanatory (or analytical) surveys 116
Telephone surveys 119
Electronic surveys 122
Conclusion 125
Discussion questions 126
Further readings 126
References for Chapter 5 126
CHAPTER 6. Case study research 130
Objectives 130
The case study as a research approach 130
Philosophical traditions and case study research 132
Designing case study research 133
Conducting case study research 135
Conclusion 140
Discussion questions 140
Further readings 141
References for Chapter 6 141
CHAPTER 7. Experimental research designs 144
Objectives 144
Introduction 144
Key research concepts underpinning experimental research designs 145
The true experiment 149
Pre-experimental research designs 157
Quasi-experimental research designs 159
Conclusion 162
Discussion questions 163
Further readings 163
References for Chapter 7 164
CHAPTER 8. System development in information systems research 166
Objectives 166
Specifics of information systems research 166
Systems development approach 167
Where systems development fits into the research cycle 167
Generalised research process model 169
The systems development research procedure 170
Conclusion: The role of system building in information systems research 172
Discussion questions 174
Further readings 174
References for Chapter 8 175
CHAPTER 9. Action research 178
Objectives 178
The philosophy of action research 178
Sources of action research 179
The nature of action research 179
Rigorous action research 182
Techniques that can be used in action research 186
Conclusion 190
Discussion questions 190
Further readings 191
References for Chapter 9 191
CHAPTER 10. Ethnography 196
Objectives 196
Introduction 196
Positivist approaches to the analysis of culture and social phenomena 198
Interpretivist philosophical frameworks 199
Continuing critiques of the main philosophical frameworks within interpretivist ethnographic research 204
Post-modern ethnography 207
Conclusion 208
Discussion questions 208
Further readings 209
References for Chapter 10 209
CHAPTER 11. Historical research 214
Objectives 214
All around us 214
Evidence 216
Critiquing the evidence 217
Uses of history 225
Discussion questions 225
Further readings 226
References for Chapter 11 226
CHAPTER 12. The Delphi method 228
Objectives 228
Introduction 228
Steps in a Delphi process 229
Historical perspectives 232
When a Delphi study is appropriate 232
Uses of the Delphi method 233
Advantages and disadvantages of the Delphi method 233
The role which technology can play 236
Conclusion 237
Discussion questions 237
Further readings 237
References for Chapter 12 238
Section 3: Techniques 240
Introduction 242
CHAPTER 13. Research techniques: Sampling 244
Objectives 244
Introduction 244
Definition of terms 245
Types of sampling 246
Conclusion 251
Discussion questions 252
Further readings 252
References for Chapter 13 252
CHAPTER 14. Research techniques: Questionnaires and interviews 254
Objectives 254
Questionnaires 254
Interviewing 260
Discussion questions 266
Further readings 266
References for Chapter 14 267
CHAPTER 15. Research techniques: Focus groups 270
Objectives 270
Introduction 270
Setting up focus groups 271
Uses of focus groups 272
Advantages and disadvantages of focus groups 275
Design of focus groups 279
Conclusion 281
Discussion questions 281
Further readings 282
References for Chapter 15 282
CHAPTER 16. Ethnographic techniques 284
Objectives 284
Introduction 284
What is ethnography? 285
The variety of ways of doing participant observation 286
Other ways of doing ethnography 288
When to undertake an ethnography 290
Gaining permission to enter the field 291
Planning the research 292
Entering the field 294
Collecting the data: In the field 295
Analysis 295
Presenting the findings 295
Discussion questions 297
Further readings 297
References for Chapter 16 297
Section 4: Data analysis 300
Introduction 302
CHAPTER 17. Analysis of quantitative and qualitative data 304
Objectives 304
Introduction 304
Quantitative data 304
Qualitative analysis 311
Conclusion 319
Discussion questions 319
Further readings 320
References for Chapter 17 320
CHAPTER 18. Evaluation of published research 324
Objectives 324
Introduction 324
Strategy for reading and evaluating research reports 325
Major components of a research report 325
Conclusion 338
Discussion questions 340
References for Chapter 18 340
POSTSCRIPT: Seven questions for information management and systems researchers 342
Information management and systems research: A tough mission 342
Seeing, observing and modelling 344
Two final questions 347
References for Postscript 347
Glossary of terms used in research 350
Notes on contributors 356
Index 360
Introduction to research in relation to professional practice
Kirsty Williamson; Frada Burstein; Sue McKemmish
Objectives
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• understand how research is defined;
• have begun to learn some of the specific terminology used by researchers;
• understand the major elements of a research project and how they are covered in this book;
• be aware of the roles which research can play and should play in professional practice; and
• understand the kinds of workplace issues which might warrant research.
Introduction
This introductory chapter considers how research is defined, both in general and more specific ways. This will lead to the roles which research can and should play in professional practice, particularly in the field of information management and systems – in corporate, government, educational and community sectors.
For many of you, some of the terminology used to describe research methodology will be new. A glossary of terms describing various aspects of research, is included at the end of the book. It would be a good idea to check it over now, and then be sure to refer to it as you meet an unfamiliar term along the way.
What is research?
The need to know, to interpret the environment or the world, is basic to us all. There is a sense in which research is simply one of the fundamental activities of human beings. The main difference between our everyday activity and formal research is the rigour and discipline with which the latter is carried out and the making of that process highly self-conscious. Below are a number of different definitions, not all from the ‘information’ field. The first two are very simple; the second two a lot more complex.
Research is any conscious premeditated inquiry – any investigation which seems to increase one’s knowledge of a given situation (Goldhor 1972, p. 7).
Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem (Burns 1990, p. 1).
Research … [is] an organised, systematic, data-based, critical, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the objective of finding answers or solutions to it (Sekeran 1992, p. 4).
For the social scientist or researcher in applied fields, research is a process of trying to gain a better understanding of human interactions. Through systematic means, the researcher gathers information about actions and interactions, reflects on their meaning, arrives at and evaluates conclusions, and eventually puts forward an interpretation (Marshall and Rossman 1995, p. 15).
The third of these definitions emerges from the positivist tradition of research, which sees links between the ways in which the natural sciences and social sciences should be investigated. The emphasis in this tradition has been on the collection of quantitative data, which are data in the form of numbers collected by techniques such as questionnaires and other instruments of measurement. The fourth comes from the interpretivist approach, which emphasises meanings created by people and data which are qualitative (or in the form of words), collected by techniques such as interviews and observation. However, at least some of the time, both types of data and data collection are used by both types of researchers. The two different traditions are described in Chapter 2.
A fifth definition comes from Hernon (1991). It encompasses all styles of research and is said to cover the types of research in library and information studies:
Research is an inquiry process that has clearly defined parameters and has as its aim, the:
• Discovery or creation of knowledge, or theory building;
• Testing, confirmation, revision, refutation of knowledge and theory; and/or
• Investigation of a problem for local decision making (Hernon 1991, pp. 3-4).
In professional practice in information environments, the most obvious uses of research are for problem solving, for development, evaluation and improvement of services and systems, or to provide information before introducing new systems or services (probably through the assessment of user needs). This should not rule out ‘theory building’, which provides an important underpinning for all professions. The role of theory will be discussed in Chapter 3.
Research is often described as a linear, organised process. In fact, it is a good idea to realise that usually the process is less under control than the text books indicate. Figure 1.1 (The island of research) is provided with ‘tongue in cheek’, but contains more than an element of truth! As Marshall and Rossman (1995, p. 15) say: ‘real research is often confusing, messy, intensely frustrating, and fundamentally nonlinear’.
Basic versus applied research
There are many ways of categorising and discussing research. As already mentioned, in Chapter 2 we shall explore the two major traditions of research. For now, the discussion concerns the categories of basic and applied research.
Basic research, also referred to as pure, fundamental or theoretical research, is primarily concerned with deriving new knowledge and is only indirectly involved (if at all) with how that knowledge will be applied to specific, practical problems. Basic research tends to focus on theory building and/or hypothesis testing. It extends horizons in a general, fundamental way. (See Box 1.1 for examples of basic research.)
Box 1.1
Examples of basic research
1. A study (Williamson 1995) investigated the information, communication and telecommunications needs of older adults, aged sixty and over, along with the behaviours associated with these. This included a fundamental examination of the ways in which older people communicate: how they establish and maintain relationships which are important to their lives and how they seek and/or acquire information which they need for everyday living. Also included was the involvement of the telephone in information seeking and communication. There was no specific problem to solve, but a wealth of detail, helpful in understanding communication and information-seeking behaviour, emerged from the study. There was also a contribution to the theory of information-seeking and communication behaviours.
2. Another example of basic research is from the information systems field (Paranagama and Burstein 1996). This research established the influence of the personality types of managers. It looked at the ways personality types influenced preferences when managers make decisions with multiple evaluation criteria.
Applied research is concerned with solving specific problems in real life situations. It is much more pragmatic and emphasises information which is immediately usable in the solution of actual problems. It is more likely to be the type of research which is applicable to information environments and in business. In terms of information environments, an example might be the evaluation of whether an innovative system of electronic recordkeeping is meeting the needs of users. In the business environment, an organisation contemplating a paperless office and a networking system for the company’s personal computers, may conduct research to learn the amount of time its employees spend at personal computers in an average week (Zikmund 1994, p. 7).
In fact, the distinction between basic and applied research is not clear-cut. Many of the same techniques are used in both. Research can be practical (applied) and still generate new theory and make a contribution to fundamental knowledge. Conversely, the findings of basic or pure research will often have practical applications in the long term. (See Box 1.2 for an example of basic research with ‘applied’ elements.)
Box 1.2
Example of basic research with ‘aplied elements’
Returning to the first research example in Box 1.1 above, it was found that a number of respondents with limited mobility had incorporated some of the rituals of social intercourse into their use of the telephone. In one case, a female respondent who was eighty-three years old and virtually housebound, had daily ‘drinks on the phone at 5 o’clock’ with an elderly male friend, who was in a nursing home on the other side of Melbourne. In another case, a respondent recorded in her diary that when her cousin, George, rang from England he suggested that next time they talked on the phone they make a cup of tea beforehand and drink it together (Williamson 1995, p. 233). The question which arises from this finding is: what telecommunications equipment will enhance the lives of people in this kind of isolated position? It could be a video phone, for example. This is an example of basic research having practical applications.
In the same research, respondents indicated that...
| Erscheint lt. Verlag | 1.7.2002 |
|---|---|
| Sprache | englisch |
| Themenwelt | Geisteswissenschaften ► Sprach- / Literaturwissenschaft |
| Naturwissenschaften | |
| Sozialwissenschaften ► Kommunikation / Medien ► Buchhandel / Bibliothekswesen | |
| Wirtschaft ► Betriebswirtschaft / Management ► Wirtschaftsinformatik | |
| ISBN-10 | 1-78063-420-X / 178063420X |
| ISBN-13 | 978-1-78063-420-3 / 9781780634203 |
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