Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants (eBook)

Cover 1
Rinderpest and Peste des Petits Ruminants Virus Plagues of Large and Small Ruminants 4
Dedication 6
Contents 8
Contributors 16
Series Introduction: Biology of Animal Infections 18
Foreword 20
Preface 22
Acknowledgements 26
Abbreviations 28
List of Plates 34
Rinderpest: a general introduction 36
Rinderpest 36
The concept of a virus 36
Development of prophylactic measures 39
Inoculation–Vaccination against rinderpest 41
Virus eradication 43
A brief history of peste des petits ruminants 44
References 45
The morbilliviruses 48
Introduction 48
Measles virus 49
Rinderpest 50
Peste des petits ruminants virus 50
Canine distemper virus 51
Phocine distemper virus 53
Cetacean morbilliviruses 56
Morbillivirus host range 57
Evolutionary relationships 58
Control strategies 60
References 61
Molecular biology of the morbilliviruses 66
Introduction 66
Genome organization 66
Virus promoters 69
Transcription 71
Replication 75
Virus structural proteins 76
The N protein 76
The P protein 77
The M protein 78
The F protein 81
The H protein 83
The L protein 84
Virus non-structural protein functions 85
The C protein 85
The V protein 86
The R protein 88
Molecular determinants of virulence 88
Molecular determinants of host range 90
Conclusions 90
Acknowledgements 91
References 91
Rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants – the diseases: clinical signs and pathology 103
Introduction 103
Rinderpest clinical disease 104
Rinderpest pathology 108
PPR clinical disease 113
PPR pathology 115
References 118
Rinderpest – an old and worldwide story: history to c.1902 121
Introduction 121
Rinderpest: a terrible disease 122
The early recognition of the disease 123
The first scientific descriptions of the disease and the first control measures 123
The first inoculations in England and The Netherlands 126
The 1865–1867 epizootics in England 129
History of rinderpest in Asia 130
Rinderpest in India 130
Rinderpest in Korea 132
Rinderpest in Japan 132
The great African rinderpest epizootic 135
References 137
Rinderpest in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries 140
Introduction 140
Progressive control and eradication 141
The freeing of Europe from rinderpest 143
The demise of the Asian lineage of rinderpest virus 143
West Asia and the Middle East 151
The China, Russia and Mongolia focus 144
The Georgia–Mongolia–Russia rinderpest enigma 145
South-East Asia 146
South Asia 147
The control of rinderpest in Africa 154
North Africa 154
Sub-Saharan Africa 155
The second African panzootic 158
The demise of African lineage 1 rinderpest virus 159
African lineage 2 rinderpest virus 164
The enigma of mild rinderpest 167
Concluding remarks: global eradication by 2010 – a dream or reality? 171
References 173
Rinderpest and wildlife 178
Introduction 178
Rinderpest in African wildlife, 1994–2004 179
The role of wildlife in the maintenance of rinderpest virus in East Africa 182
Rinderpest disease in wildlife under epidemic conditions 183
Rinderpest in wildlife under endemic conditions 190
Conclusions 194
Acknowledgements 196
References 196
Diagnosis of rinderpest virus and peste des petits ruminants virus 198
Introduction 198
Sample collection 198
Virus isolation and identification 200
Antigen detection 201
Agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) 201
Immunocapture ELISA 202
Sensitivity and specificity 204
Field validation 205
Impact 205
Pen-side test for rinderpest 206
Principle of the test 206
Development 208
Validation 208
Field validation 209
Impact 209
Genome detection for RPV and PPRV 210
Rinderpest antibody detection 211
Virus neutralization test 211
Indirect ELISA 212
Competitive ELISA 213
References 217
Old prophylactic methods 220
Introduction 220
Individual animal treatment 220
Sanitary measures 222
Isolation 222
Import restrictions and quarantine measures 224
Slaughter and compensation 224
Destruction of carcasses 225
Destruction or decontamination of other virulent material 226
Medical measures 226
Religion, magic and drugs 226
Inoculation 227
Serum and vaccines 228
Conclusions 228
References 229
Immunology of rinderpest – an immunosuppression but a lifelong vaccine protection 231
Introduction 231
Recovery from rinderpest infection 232
Humoral immunity 232
Cell-mediated immunity 232
Vaccination 233
Attenuated vaccines 233
Replicating recombinant vaccines 234
Non-replicating vaccines 236
B and T cell epitopes 237
Immunopathology 238
Inflammation 238
Lymphoid tissue infection 240
Leucocyte infection 240
Dendritic cell infection 241
Cell death 241
Autoimmunity 254
Autoantibodies 254
Mechanisms of autoimmunity 255
Immunosuppression 255
Secondary infections 255
Mechanisms of immunosuppression 256
Lymphodepletion 256
Inhibition of T and B cell function 256
Contact-mediated inhibition 257
Morbillivirus proteins and immunosuppression 260
References 263
History of vaccines and vaccination 269
Introduction 269
Immune serum and serum-simultaneous vaccination 270
Inactivated rinderpest vaccines 272
Goat-attenuated rinderpest vaccines 273
Rabbit-attenuated rinderpest vaccine 277
Egg-attenuated rinderpest vaccine 278
Tissue culture rinderpest vaccines 279
Combined rinderpest vaccines 286
Recombinant vaccines and differentiation between vaccine and wild virus infection 286
The salient features of different rinderpest vaccines 287
References 289
New generation vaccines against rinderpest and peste des petits ruminants 294
Introduction 294
The first recombinant vaccines 295
Reverse genetics and vaccine development 296
Chimeric marker vaccines 298
Alternative approaches 300
Companion diagnostic tests 301
Safety of recombinant vaccines 302
Prospects for the use of recombinant vaccines in the field 302
References 304
Use of rinderpest vaccine in international programmes for the control and eradication of rinder- 307
The dawn of control through vaccination 307
The joint campaign against rinderpest (JP15) 309
Fifty-year struggle to eliminate rinderpest from India: 1954–2004 314
The second Indian elimination programme: the National Project for Rinderpest Eradication of 1989–2004 318
Vaccine quality control 322
Quality assurance of vaccination programmes by seromonitoring 323
The use of vaccine to build barriers against the movement of infection 324
Emergency vaccination 327
Lessons to be learnt from the implementation of mass vaccination campaigns 328
References 329
Strategy for measles eradication 331
Introduction 331
Clinical aspects 332
Immune responses 333
Transmission and molecular epidemiology 334
Vaccines 337
A window of opportunity for virus infection 338
New measles vaccines? 339
Prospects for eradication 342
References 343
Towards the global eradication of rinderpest 345
Introduction 345
Evolution of zoo-sanitary measures and a profession to control rinderpest 346
The initial mandates of the OIE and FAO Animal Health Service 347
International rinderpest control during the first half of the twentieth century 348
International rinderpest control from 1950 to 1980 350
The international response to rinderpest resurgence in the 1980s 353
The conception of a global rinderpest eradication programme coordinated by FAO 354
The international rinderpest eradication standards established by the OIE 355
The evolution of GREP between 1993 and 1996 356
The GREP strategy after 1996 358
Planning for the end game 360
Verification and accreditation of rinderpest freedom – the ‘OIE Pathway’ 362
The verification and certification process 363
Lessons from smallpox, polio and measles global programmes 364
Lessons for future global animal disease control programmes 366
References 367
Conclusions 370
Biographical notes on key players in rinderpest study and control 373
Index 378