English and Korean in Contrast

JONG-BOK KIM is Professor in the Department of English Linguistics and Literature at Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea. His publications include Syntactic Constructions in English, English Syntax: An Introduction, The Syntactic Structure of Korean: A Construction Grammar Perspective, and numerous papers in top-tier domestic and international journals. He is also an Alexander von Humboldt Research Award Winner and a Distinguished Research Fellow of National Research Foundation of Korea.

Preface xiii

Abbreviations xv

1 Linguistic Differences: Where Do They Come From? 1

1.1 Linguistic Differences 1

1.2 Cultural Differences 3

1.3 Why Contrastive Analyses? 5

1.4 What This Book Is About 6

Exercises 7

2 Sounds and Writing Systems: How to Speak and Write 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.2 English Sound Systems 10

2.2.1 English Consonants 10

2.2.2 English Vowels 12

2.3 Korean Hangul Alphabet and Romanization 13

2.4 Korean Sound Systems 15

2.4.1 Korean Consonants 15

2.4.2 Korean Vowels 17

2.5 Syllable Structures 18

2.5.1 English Syllable Structures 18

2.5.2 Korean Syllable Structures 20

2.6 Suprasegmental Features 21

2.6.1 English Suprasegmental Features 21

2.6.2 Korean Suprasegmental Features 22

2.7 Contrastive Notes 23

2.7.1 Consonants 23

2.7.2 Different Vowel Sets 24

2.7.3 Syllable and Consonant Clusters 24

2.7.4 Stress vs. Nonstress 25

2.8 Conclusion 25

Exercises 26

3 Words: Where Every Sentence Begins 29

3.1 Introduction 29

3.2 English Parts of Speech 29

3.2.1 Nouns 30

3.2.2 Verbs: Main and Auxiliary 30

3.2.3 Adjectives 32

3.2.4 Adverbs 32

3.2.5 Determiners 33

3.2.6 Prepositions 33

3.2.7 Particles 34

3.2.8 Conjunctions 35

3.2.9 Complementizers 36

3.3 Korean Parts of Speech 37

3.3.1 Nominals 37

3.3.2 Adnominals 41

3.3.3 Verbals: Adjective and Verb Together 42

3.3.4 Adverbials 46

3.4 Expanding Verbals and Nominals 47

3.4.1 Verbal and Nominal Derivations and Inflections in English 47

3.4.2 Verbal Inflections in Korean 48

3.4.3 Nominal Expansion in Korean 52

3.5 Contrastive Notes 53

3.5.1 Different Sets of Lexical Categories 53

3.5.2 Simple vs. Rich Verbal Inflection Systems 55

3.5.3 Simple vs. Rich Nominal Inflections 56

3.6 Conclusion 56

Exercises 57

4 Phrases: Combining Words and Building Larger Expressions 61

4.1 Introduction 61

4.2 Main Phrases in English 62

4.2.1 Noun Phrases 62

4.2.2 Verb Phrases 64

4.2.3 Adjective Phrases 65

4.2.4 Adverbial Phrases 66

4.2.5 Prepositional Phrases 67

4.2.6 Complementizer Phrases and Subordinating S (Conj-S) 68

4.3 Phrases in Korean 69

4.3.1 Nominal Phrases 69

4.3.2 Verbal Phrases: Stative and Nonstative VPs 74

4.3.3 Adverbial Phrases 78

4.4 Complex Phrases: Expanding the Size of Phrases 79

4.5 Contrastive Notes 80

4.5.1 Noun Phrases vs. Nominal Phrases 80

4.5.2 Verb Phrases and Verbal Phrases 81

4.5.3 Adnominal Phrases 82

4.5.4 Prepositions and Case Marking 82

4.6 Conclusion 83

Exercises 83

5 Grammar Rules: Constructing Sentences 87

5.1 Form and Function 87

5.2 Grammatical Functions 88

5.3 Mapping between Grammatical Function and Form 92

5.4 English Grammar Rules 93

5.4.1 Forming English Sentences 93

5.4.2 Simple English Sentences 97

5.5 Korean Grammar Rules 101

5.5.1 Forming Korean Sentences 101

5.5.2 Simple Korean Sentences 105

5.5.3 Grammar Rule for Auxiliary Constructions 106

5.6 Contrastive Notes 108

5.6.1 SVO vs. SOV 108

5.6.2 Head-Initial vs. Head-Final 108

5.6.3 Fixed vs. Free Word Order 109

5.6.4 Pro-Drop Languages 110

5.6.5 Complement Omission 111

5.7 Conclusion 111

Exercises 112

6 Tense and Aspect: Describing When and How a Situation Happens 115

6.1 Ways to Describe an Event 115

6.2 How to Describe an Event in English 118

6.2.1 Tense and Verb Inflection Form 118

6.2.2 Aspects: Ongoing and Completion 121

6.2.3 Situation Types 123

6.2.4 Sentence Types and Mood 125

6.3 How to Describe an Event in Korean 126

6.3.1 Tense in Korean 126

6.3.2 Aspect in Korean 131

6.3.3 Situation Types in Korean 134

6.3.4 Sentence Types and Mood in Korean 136

6.4 Contrastive Notes 137

6.4.1 Tense 137

6.4.2 Aspect 138

6.4.3 Sentence Types and Mood 138

6.5 Conclusion 139

Exercises 139

7 Auxiliary Systems: Helping Main Verbs 143

7.1 Introduction 143

7.2 English Auxiliary System 144

7.2.1 Modals 145

7.2.2 Aspectual Verbs: Be and Have 147

7.2.3 Periphrastic Do 149

7.2.4 Infinitival Clause Marker To 149

7.2.5 Auxiliary and Negation 150

7.3 Korean Auxiliary System 152

7.3.1 Types of Auxiliary Verbs and 152

7.3.2 Three Possible Structures 154

7.3.3 Complex Predicate Formation 156

7.3.4 Auxiliaries and Negation 161

7.4 Contrastive Notes 162

7.4.1 Syntactic Similarities and Differences 163

7.4.2 Number of Auxiliary Verbs 164

7.4.3 Types of Auxiliary Verbs, and Expressing Modality 164

7.5 Conclusion 165

Exercises 166

8 Passive: Performing an Action or Being Acted Upon 169

8.1 Introduction 169

8.2 English Passive Constructions 170

8.2.1 Canonical Passive 170

8.2.2 Prepositional Passive 173

8.2.3 Semantic and Pragmatic Constraints 175

8.2.4 Adjectivals and Get-Passive 176

8.3 Korean Passive Constructions 178

8.3.1 Lexical and Syntactic Passives 178

8.3.2 Typical Syntactic Passives 181

8.3.3 Light-Verb Pseudo-Syntactic Passive 184

8.3.4 Inchoative and Stative Pseudo-Syntactic Passive 188

8.4 Contrastive Notes 190

8.4.1 Similarities 190

8.4.2 Structural Differences 191

8.4.3 Non-Canonical Passives 191

8.5 Conclusion 192

Exercises 192

9 Interrogative Constructions: Asking a Question 195

9.1 Clausal Types and Interrogatives 195

9.2 English Interrogatives 196

9.2.1 Yes-No Questions and Answering System 196

9.2.2 Tag Questions 199

9.2.3 Alternative Questions 200

9.2.4 Direct Wh-Questions and Syntactic Structures 201

9.2.5 Indirect Wh-Questions 205

9.2.6 Infinitival Wh-Questions 207

9.2.7 Multiple Wh-Questions 208

9.3 Korean Interrogatives 208

9.3.1 Yes-No Question and Response Particles 208

9.3.2 Wh-Questions 210

9.3.3 Indirect Questions 215

9.3.4 Multiple Wh-Questions 218

9.3.5 Questions with Different Illocutionary Force 219

9.4 Contrastive Notes 220

9.4.1 Polar Questions and Response Particles 220

9.4.2 Wh-Questions: In Situ or Not 221

9.4.3 Interpreting Wh-Expressions 221

9.5 Conclusion 222

Exercises 223

10 Relative Clauses: Building Bigger Nominal Expressions 227

10.1 Modifying an NP in the Postnominal Position 227

10.2 Relative Clauses in English 228

10.2.1 Wh-Relative Clauses 228

10.2.2 Wh- vs. That-Relative Clauses 234

10.2.3 Reduced Relative Clauses 234

10.2.4 Finite vs. Infinitival Relative Clauses 235

10.2.5 Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses 236

10.3 Relative Clauses in Korean 238

10.3.1 Complex NPs 238

10.3.2 Canonical Relative Clauses 240

10.3.3 Internally Headed Relative Clauses 243

10.3.4 Pseudo-Relative Clauses 246

10.4 Contrastive Notes 249

10.4.1 Relative Pronoun or Not 249

10.4.2 Types of Relative Clauses 249

10.4.3 Context-Sensitive Relative Clauses 251

10.5 Conclusion 251

Exercises 252

11 Topic and Focus: Specifying Given and New Information 255

11.1 Introduction 255

11.2 Topic Constructions in English 256

11.3 Topic Constructions in Korean 259

11.3.1 General Properties 259

11.3.2 Semantic/Pragmatic Classifications: Aboutness, Contrastive, and Scene-Setting 261

11.3.3 Syntactic Classifications and Structures 263

11.4 Focus Constructions in English 268

11.4.1 General Properties 268

11.4.2 Cleft Constructions in English and Their Syntactic Structures 269

11.5 Focus Constructions in Korean 274

11.5.1 General Properties 274

11.5.2 Cleft Constructions in Korean 276

11.5.3 Multiple-Nominative Focus Constructions 281

11.6 Contrastive Notes 283

11.6.1 Subject-Prominent vs. Topic-Prominent 283

11.6.2 Types of Topics 284

11.6.3 Focus Constructions: Clefts and Multiple Nominatives 285

11.7 Conclusion 286

Exercises 286

12 Comparative Constructions: Comparing Two Things or Situations 289

12.1 Introduction 289

12.2 English Comparatives 290

12.2.1 Clausal and Phrasal Comparatives 290

12.2.2 Coordination vs. Subordination Properties 291

12.2.3 Comparative Deletion and Ellipsis 292

12.3 Korean Comparatives 294

12.3.1 General Properties 294

12.3.2 Structure of Phrasal Comparatives 298

12.3.3 Structure of Clausal Comparatives 301

12.3.4 Context-Dependent Comparatives 304

12.4 Contrastive Notes 305

12.4.1 Types of Comparatives 305

12.4.2 Comparative Morphemes and Standard Markers 306

12.4.3 Comparative Deletion and Comparative Ellipsis 306

12.4.4 Context Dependency 306

12.5 Conclusion 307

Exercises 307

13 Agreement: Harmonizing Together 311

13.1 Introduction 311

13.2 Agreement in English 312

13.2.1 Agreement Features in English 312

13.2.2 Determiner-Head Agreement 313

13.2.3 Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement 313

13.2.4 Subject-Verb Agreement as Morphosyntactic Agreement 314

13.2.5 Subject-Verb Agreement as Index Agreement 314

13.3 Agreement in Korean 316

13.3.1 Subject-Verb Agreement as Honorific Agreement 316

13.3.2 Addressee Agreement 317

13.3.3 Multiple Honorification 318

13.3.4 Agreement in Auxiliary Constructions 319

13.4 Contrastive Notes 321

13.4.1 Subject-Verb Agreement 321

13.4.2 Other Types of Agreement 321

13.5 Conclusion 322

Exercises 322

14 Figurative Languages and Metaphors: Those We Live By 325

14.1 Literal vs. Figurative Uses in English 325

14.2 Metaphors in English 327

14.2.1 Conceptual Metaphors in English 327

14.2.2 Structural, Ontological, and Orientational Metaphors in English 329

14.3 Figurative Speech in Korean 330

14.4 Metaphors in Korean 332

14.4.1 Conceptual Metaphors in Korean 332

14.4.2 Structural, Ontological, and Orientational Metaphors in Korean 332

14.5 Contrastive Notes 336

14.6 Conclusion 338

Exercises 338

Bibliography 343

Index 353