Natural History of an Arctic Oil Field (eBook)

Front Cover 1
The Natural History of an Arctic Oil Field 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Contributors 12
Foreword 14
Preface 16
PART I: Introduction to Arctic Ecosystems???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 18
Chapter 1. Introduction???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 20
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 20
Physical Environment?????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 22
Wildlife, Fish, and Habitats 23
Anthropogenic Changes???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 25
The Investigative Focus???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 27
References?????????????????????????????????? 27
Chapter 2. North Slope Oil Field Development?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 32
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 32
The History of North Slope Oil Exploration and Development?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 38
The Nature of Oil Development???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 39
Identifying and Monitoring Environmental Impacts?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 46
Mitigating Environmental Impacts?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 48
Conclusions???????????????????????????????????? 51
References?????????????????????????????????? 53
Chapter 3. Vegetative Responses to Disturbance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 56
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 56
Exploration Sites (1940-1970)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 61
Exploration Sites (1970-1990)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 62
Exploration Sites (1990s)???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 63
Winter Haul Roads???????????????????????????????????????????????? 64
Production Pads and Roads???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 66
Dust Fallout from Roads???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 67
Gravel Spills on Tundra???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 67
Snow Stockpiles???????????????????????????????????????????? 68
Seeded and Fertilized Sites???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 68
Nutrients from Wastewater???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 69
Impoundments?????????????????????????????????????? 78
Buried Cable Trenches???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 79
Oil Spills?????????????????????????????????? 79
Brine Spills?????????????????????????????????????? 81
Conclusions???????????????????????????????????? 81
Epilogue?????????????????????????????? 82
References?????????????????????????????????? 83
PART II: Mammals of an Arctic Oil Field???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 86
Chapter 4. Caribou?????????????????????????????????????????????????? 88
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 88
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 89
Population Influences in the Oil-Field Region???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 95
Responses to Human Activity and Habitat Change?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 99
Can Caribou Adapt to Environmental Change??????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 106
References?????????????????????????????????? 109
Chapter 5. Caribou and Oil Fields???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 114
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 114
Caribou Use of the Oil Fields???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 116
Implications for Impacts of Oil Development???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 129
References?????????????????????????????????? 134
Chapter 6. Grizzly Bear???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 138
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 138
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 143
Habitat Use and Food Habits???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 145
Denning Ecology???????????????????????????????????????????? 150
Population Dynamics???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 155
Discussion?????????????????????????????????? 159
References?????????????????????????????????? 162
Chapter 7. Polar Bear???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 166
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 166
Distribution and Movement???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 170
Maternal Denning?????????????????????????????????????????????? 175
Population Status???????????????????????????????????????????????? 179
Research and Management Challenges?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 182
Conservation Issues???????????????????????????????????????????????????? 184
Conclusions???????????????????????????????????? 186
References?????????????????????????????????? 187
Chapter 8. Arctic Fox???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 192
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 192
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 194
Population Influences and Limits in the Region?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 200
Responses to Development?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 204
Management Issues???????????????????????????????????????????????? 205
References?????????????????????????????????? 206
PART III: Birds of an Arctic Oil Field?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 212
Chapter 9. Pacific Loon???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 214
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 214
Distribution, Abundance, and Productivity 215
Population Influences???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 216
Responses to Habitat Change and Human Activity?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 222
References?????????????????????????????????? 226
Chapter 10. Tundra Swans?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 230
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 230
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 232
Nesting Success and Productivity?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 239
Habitat Use???????????????????????????????????? 241
Diet?????????????????????? 245
Environmental Influences on Swan Populations?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 246
Conclusions???????????????????????????????????? 251
References?????????????????????????????????? 252
Chapter 11. Black Brant???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 256
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 256
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 258
Population Influences in the Oil-Field Region???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 261
Responses to Habitat Change and Human Activity?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 264
References?????????????????????????????????? 265
Chapter 12. Lesser Snow Goose???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 268
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 268
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 270
Population Influences in the Oil-Field Region???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 280
Implications of Migration???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 287
Conclusions???????????????????????????????????? 289
References?????????????????????????????????? 289
Chapter 13. Pacific Eider???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 294
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 294
Regional Distribution and Nesting???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 295
Migration???????????????????????????????? 301
Population Influences in the Oil-Field Region???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 302
Population Influences Elsewhere???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 305
Conclusions???????????????????????????????????? 306
References?????????????????????????????????? 307
Chapter 14. Shorebirds?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 312
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 312
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 315
Population Influences in the Oil-Field Region???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 320
Responses to Habitat Change and Human Activity?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 327
References?????????????????????????????????? 334
PART IV: Marine and Freshwater Life???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 340
Chapter 15. Freshwater Invertebrates: Their Regulation and Importance to Vertebrates?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 342
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 342
Habitat???????????????????????????? 344
The Invertebrate Fauna?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 345
Regulation of Invertebrate Communities?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 351
Influences of Development???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 354
References?????????????????????????????????? 360
Chapter 16. Freshwater Fishes in the Arctic Oil-Field Region and Coastal Plain of Alaska?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 364
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 365
Freshwater Habitats and Their Dominant Fishes???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 365
Ninespine Stickleback???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 372
Arctic Grayling???????????????????????????????????????????? 375
Least Cisco???????????????????????????????????? 377
Broad Whitefish???????????????????????????????????????????? 380
Round Whitefish???????????????????????????????????????????? 381
Conclusions???????????????????????????????????? 382
References?????????????????????????????????? 383
Chapter 17. Anadromous and Amphidromous Fishes?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 386
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 386
Distribution and Abundance?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 390
Habitat and Trophic Ecology???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 395
Responses to Development?????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 398
References?????????????????????????????????? 402
Chapter 18. The Benthic Faunal Assemblage of the Boulder Patch Kelp Community???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 408
Introduction?????????????????????????????????????? 409
Study Area?????????????????????????????????? 410
Methods???????????????????????????? 412
Results???????????????????????????? 414
Discussion?????????????????????????????????? 423
Management Implications???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 434
References?????????????????????????????????? 435
PART V: Synthesis???????????????????????????????????????????????? 438
Chapter 19. Synthesis???????????????????????????????????????????????????????? 440
Index???????????????????????? 448