Nutritional Supplements in Sports and Exercise (eBook)

Contents 5
Preface 7
About the Editors and Contributors 9
Part 1: The Industrial Nature of the Supplement Game 30
Effect of Government Regulation on the Evolution of Sports Nutrition 31
1 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 31
2 Government Protections from Dietary Supplement Hazards and Risks 32
3 New Dietary Ingredients 33
4 New Dietary Ingredient Review: Application Process 35
5 FDA Regulatory Action-Ephedra Supplements 36
6 FDA Regulatory Action-Androstenedione 38
7 Doping-Contaminated Supplements and Banned Ingredients 40
8 Anabolic Steroid Control Act 42
8.1 Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 1990 43
8.2 Anabolic Steroid Control Act of 2004 44
9 ADVERSE EVENTS REGULATION & Legislation
10 Contamination or Adulteration: A Need for Better Consumer Confidence 48
11 Substantiation from the Perspective of Research 50
12 Advertising 51
13 Is There Legal Precedence? 52
14 The Cost of Nontruth 54
15 Conclusion 55
References 56
Psychology of Supplementation in Sport and Exercise 60
1 Introduction 61
2 Use Rates And Motivation 62
2.1 Definition of a Dietary Supplement 62
2.2 Prevalence of Supplement Use 64
2.2.1 Sport-Specific Use 67
2.3 Motivational Theories Applied to Supplement Use 67
2.3.1 Operant Conditioning 68
2.3.2 Persuasion and Conformity 71
2.3.3 Achievement Goal Theory 74
2.3.4 Body Image and Eating Disorders 74
2.3.5 Adonis Complex 76
3 Biobehavioral Effects of Selected Supplements Commonly Employed for Performance, Fitness, and Health 77
3.1 Caffeine 78
3.2 Creatine 81
3.3 Ginkgo biloba 83
3.4 St. John’s Wort 85
4 Conclusion 87
4.1 Practical Applications 89
References 91
Part 2: Nutritional Basics First 99
Role of Nutritional Supplements Complementing Nutrient-Dense Diets 100
1 Establishing Adequate Dietary Foundations 100
2 Nutrient Density Defined 101
3 Nutrient-dense diet 102
4 Nutritional Supplements Defined 103
5 Role of Supplements in a Nutrient-Dense Diet 104
6 Designing a Nutrient-Dense Diet 105
6.1 Establishing Viable Energy Requirements 105
7 Determining Macronutrient Profiles 107
7.1 Endurance Enhancement 107
7.2 Weight Gain and Muscle Growth 108
8 Nutritionally Dense Restoration Timing Consideration 108
9 Translating Nutrients into Food 111
10 Example Diet Plans 113
10.1 Maintenance Diet for a Male Athlete Training ge 5 Days per Week 114
11 Conclusion 117
References 118
Macronutrient Intake for Physical Activity 120
1 Introduction 120
2 Macronutrients 121
2.1 Carbohydrates 121
2.2 Protein 125
2.3 Fat 126
2.4 Metabolic Usage 128
3 Determining Intake Needs 129
3.1 Determining Caloric Needs 130
3.2 Determining Macronutrient Intake 131
3.3 Case Study 135
4 Nutrient Timing 135
5 Maintaining Optimal Health During Training and Competition 137
6 Conclusion 138
References 141
Essential and Nonessential Micronutrients and Sport 145
1 Introduction 145
2 Vitamins 146
2.1 Water-Soluble Vitamins 151
2.1.1 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) 151
2.1.2 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 155
2.1.3 Vitamin B3 (Niacin) 156
2.1.4 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) 156
2.1.5 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine and Related Compounds) 157
2.1.6 Vitamin B7 (Biotin) 157
2.1.7 Folic Acid 157
2.1.8 Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) 158
2.1.9 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) 158
2.2 Fat-Soluble Vitamins 159
2.2.1 Vitamin A 159
2.2.2 Vitamin D (Calciferol) 162
2.2.3 Vitamin E 163
2.2.4 Vitamin K 164
2.3 Summary 165
2.4 To Supplement, or Not to Supplement? 165
3 Minerals 166
3.1 Macrominerals 166
3.1.1 Calcium 173
3.1.2 Phosphorus 174
3.1.3 Magnesium 175
3.1.4 Sulfur 176
3.1.5 Potassium 176
3.1.6 Sodium and Chloride 177
3.2 Microminerals/Trace Elements 177
3.2.1 Iron 178
3.3 The Vegetarian Athlete 179
3.3.1 Zinc 180
3.3.2 Chromium 181
3.3.3 Boron 182
3.3.4 Other Minerals 183
3.4 Summary 183
4 Conclusion 184
4.1 Practical Application 184
References 184
Fluid Regulation for Life and Human Performance 190
1 Nature of Water in the Human Body 190
2 Function of Water in the Human Body 191
3 Water Balance 192
4 Exercise and Hydration Requirements 195
5 Water Balance and Exercise 199
5.1 Before Exercise 199
5.2 During Exercise 200
5.3 After Exercise 200
6 Electrolytes Replacement 200
7 Hyponatremia 202
8 Glycerol 202
9 Carbohydrate Drinks and Exercise Performance 203
10 Practical Applications 205
11 Conclusion 206
References 206
Part 3: Specialized Nutritional Supplements and Strategies 210
Muscle Mass and Weight Gain Nutritional Supplements 211
1 Introduction 211
2 Importance of Net Protein Balance 212
3 Role of Genes in Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy 213
4 Protein Supplements 214
4.1 Protein Requirements 214
4.2 Types of Protein Supplement 215
4.2.1 Whey Protein 216
4.2.2 Casein Protein 217
4.2.3 Soy Protein 217
4.2.4 Egg Protein 218
4.3 Summary 218
5 Carbohydrate-Protein Combinations 218
5.1 Resistance Training in the Absence of Nutritional Intake 219
5.2 Insulin, Amino Acids, and Protein Synthesis 220
5.3 Importance of Combined Carbohydrate-Protein Supplements and Timing of Ingestion 222
5.4 Summary 223
6 Creatine 223
6.1 Effects on Lean Body Mass 224
6.2 Physiological Mechanisms for Increasing Lean Body Mass 225
6.3 Satellite Cell Activity 226
7 Anabolic Hormone Enhancers 227
7.1 Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 228
7.2 Growth Hormone 228
7.3 Testosterone 231
7.3.1 ZMA 231
7.3.2. TRIBULUS TERRESTRIS 232
7.3.3. AROMATASE INHIBITORS 232
8. ANTICATABOLIC SUPPLEMENTS 233
8.1. a-Ketoisocaproic Acid 234
8.2. b-Hydroxy-b-Methylbutyrate 234
8.3. Glutamine 236
9. NITRIC OXIDE BOOSTERS 236
10. CONCLUSION 238
REFERENCES 238
Weight Loss Nutritional Supplements 246
1 Introduction 247
2 Nutritional Supplements That Increase Energy Expenditure 248
2.1 Ephedra Alkaloids and Herbal Caffeine 248
2.2 Bitter Orange (Citrus Aurantium) 251
2.3 Pyruvate 257
3 Supplements That Modify Carbohydrate and Fat Metabolism 260
3.1 Chromium Picolinate 260
3.2 Chitosan 261
3.3 Garcinia cambogia (Hydroxycitric Acid) 262
3.4 Conjugated Linoleic Acid 265
3.5 Calcium 268
4 Supplements That Increase Satiety 271
4.1 Glucommannan, Guar Gum, and Psyllium 271
5 Other Dietary Supplements 272
6 Conclusion 273
References 274
Effective Nutritional Supplement Combinations 279
1 Introduction 279
2 Supplement Combinations That May Enhance the Phosphagen System 280
3 Supplement Combinations to Enhance Muscle Glycogen 287
4 Supplement Combinations to Enhance Muscle Anabolism 298
5 Combinations That Enhance Aerobic/Anaerobic Performance 303
6 Chronic Adaptations: Supplement Combinations That Promote Muscle Hypertrophy and Strength 305
7 Combinations Shown to Enhance Anaerobic/Aerobic Exercise Performance 312
8 Conclusion 315
8.1 Multifaceted Role of the Muscle PCr-Cr System in Exercise Metabolism 317
8.2. Creatine + Protein or Creatine + Carbohydrate for Better Muscle Hypertrophy? 319
8.2.1. PAUL J. CRIBB 319
8.3. Addition of Protein to a Carbohydrate Supplement for Increased Efficiency of Muscle Glycogen Storage 323
8.3.1. JOHN L. IVY 323
8.4. Can Supplement Timing Double Gains in Muscle Mass? 324
8.4.1. ALAN HAYES 324
References 326
Nutritional Supplements for Strength Power Athletes 340
1 Introduction 340
2 Review of the Literature 342
2.1 Supplements that Enhance Strength, Power, or Hypertrophy Directly 342
2.1.1. CREATINE 342
2.1.2. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS 345
2.1.3. CARNOSINE/b-ALANINE 348
2.1.4. ARGININE/a-KETOGLUTURATE 350
2.1.5. AROMATASE INHIBITORS 352
2.1.6. ZINC MAGNESIUM ASPARTATE 355
2.2. Supplements that Promote Recovery 358
2.2.1. GLUTAMINE 358
2.2.2. b-HYDROXY-b-METHYLBUTYRIC ACID 359
2.2.3. ANTIOXIDANTS 361
2.3. Supplements that Enhance Immune Function 363
2.3.1. VITAMINS AND MINERALS 363
2.3.2. CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACIDS 365
2.4. Supplements that Provide Energy and Enhanced Workouts 366
2.4.1. CARBOHYDRATE 366
4.2. CAFFEINE 368
3. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION 370
REFERENCES 379
Nutritional Supplements for Endurance Athletes 388
1 Introduction 388
2 Factors Limiting Endurance Athletic Performance 389
2.1 The Truth About Lactate 391
3 Supplements for Endurance Athletes 392
3.1. What Is the Glycemic Index? 395
4 Immune System and Endurance Performance 411
5 Additional Concerns 417
6 Conclusion 418
7 Practical Applications 419
References 420
Nutritional Supplements to Enhance Recovery 427
1 Exercise Recovery 427
2 Phases of Recovery 428
3 Classification of Recovery Supplements 429
4 Rehydration 429
4.1 Water and Sodium 431
4.2 Carbohydrate-Electrolyte Solutions 433
4.3 Glycerol 433
4.4.1 David Chorba 434
4.5.1 Rita Chorba 437
4.6 Electrolyte Balance 440
5 Muscle Fuel Energy 441
5.1 Carbohydrate 441
5.1.1 Glycogen Storage Immediately After Exercise 442
5.2 Sustained Post-Exercise Glycogen Storage 443
5.3 Glycogen Supercompensation 443
5.3.1 Differences Between Simple Carbohydrates 444
5.4 Protein 445
5.5 Lipids 446
5.5.1 Conjugated Linoleic Acid 446
5.6 Other Muscle Substrates 447
5.6.1 Creatine 447
5.6.2 d-Ribose 448
6 Minimizing Oxidative Damage 449
7 Immune Function 452
7.1 Glutamine 452
8 Repair of Muscle Damage 454
8.1 Protein and Amino Acid Intake 455
8.2 Leucine and Muscle Protein Synthesis 456
8.3 Carbohydrate and Protein Intake 457
8.4 Glutamine 457
9 Conclusion 458
10 Practical Applications 459
References 459
Nutritional Supplementation and Meal Timing 469
1 Introduction 470
2 Prolonged Exercise 473
2.1 During Exercise 474
2.1.1 CHO Supplementation 474
2.1.2 CHO-PRO Supplementation 475
2.2 After Exercise (Replacement, Recovery, Regeneration, Adaptation) 477
2.2.1 Immediately After Exercise 477
2.3 Dehydration: Fluid, the Forgotten Supplement 482
3 Strength/Resistance Training 483
3.1 Acute Exercise Bout Studies-Strength/Resistance 484
3.1.1 Supplementation Before, During, and Immediately After Resistance Exercise 484
3.1.2 Supplementation Immediately After Resistance Exercise 485
3.1.3 Supplementation 1-4 hours After Strength/Resistance Training 488
3.1.4 4+ hours Throughout the Rest of the Day-Strength/Resistance 490
3.1.5 Prospective Resistance Training Studies and Supplementation Timing 490
4 Immune Function and Oxidative Stress 493
4.1 Between Exercise Sessions 494
4.2 During Exercise 494
5 Conclusion 496
6 Practical Applications 498
References 499
Part 4: Present and Future Directions of Nutritional Supplements 506
Future Trends 507
1 Introduction 507
2 How Is This Industry Defined? 508
3 What Is Selling? 508
4 Trends 510
4.1 A Breakthrough in Carnitine Research 511
5 Driving Sales and Growth 512
6 Future Market Predictions 514
7 Research Directions 515
7.1 Legal Matters: An Interview with Rick Collins 517
8 Regulations in Sport 519
9 Conclusion 522
References 523
Index 525