How Writing Came About

Denise Schmandt-Besserat is Professor of Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Texas at Austin.

Preface
Introduction: Tokens, a New Theory

The Myths
The Pictographic Theory
Tokens


Part One: The Evidence

1. What Are Tokens?

Types and Subtypes
Evolution from Plain to Complex Materials
Manufacture
The Token Collection under Study


2. Where Tokens Were Handled and Who Used Them

Types of Settlements
Distribution within Settlements
Structures
Token Clusters
Containers Holding Tokens
Associated Assemblages
Tokens as Funerary Offerings


3.Strings of Tokens and Envelopes

Strings of Tokens
Envelopes


4. Impressed Tablets

Number
Context
Chronology
Description
The Signs
Beyond the Impressed Tablets: Pictography
The Meaning of Signs and Their Corresponding Tokens
The Place of Impressed Tablets in the Evolution of Writing




Part Two: The Interpretation

5. The Evolution of Symbols in Prehistory

Symbols and Signs
Lower and Middle Paleolithic Symbols
Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Symbols
Neolithic Symbols
A Turning Point in Communication and Data Storage


6. Tokens: The Socioeconomic Implications

Reckoning Technology and Economy
Reckoning Technology and Social Organization


7. Counting and the Emergence of Writing

The Various Modes of Counting
The Sumerian Philological Evidence
The Near Eastern Archaeological Data


8. Conclusions: Tokens, Their Role in Prehistory and Their Contribution to Archaeology

Economy
Political Structure
Mathematics
Communication




Part Three: The Artifacts

Cones
Spheres
Disks
Cylinders
Tetrahedrons
Ovoids
Quadrangles
Triangles
Biconoids
Paraboloids
Bent Coils
Ovals/Rhomboids
Vessels
Tools
Animals
Miscellaneous


Notes
Glossary
Index