Law, Gender Identity, and the Brain

Aileen Kennedy is a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow in the Faculty of Law at the University of Technology, Sydney and the Chair of Intersex Human Rights Australia.

Acknowledgements ix

1 Introduction 1

Introduction 1

Legal Focus: Why These Cases? 2

Structure 4

Terminology 7

Comparing Trans and Intersex Issues 11

Critiquing Biomedical Research 14

Conclusion 15

Reference List 16

Articles/Books/Reports 16

Cases 17

Legislation 17

Other 17

2 Sex, Gender, and Gender Identity 18

Introduction 18

Biological Determinism 19

The Sex/Gender Distinction 21

Current Clashes 23

Examining the Sex/Gender Gap 30

Embodiment and Feminism 32

Static Biology and Dynamic Culture 33

The Search for ‘True Sex’ in the Body 37

The Move From a One-Sex to a Two-Sex Body 37

Finding Sex in the Hermaphroditic Body 38

Conclusion 50

Reference List 51

Articles/Books/Reports 51

Cases 55

Other 55

3 Brain-Sex Binary Theories 57

Introduction 57

Brain Sex and Gender Identity 59

What is Gender Identity? 61

Brain-Sex Binary and Brain Organisation Theories 70

Sex Differences in the Brain 77

Introduction 77

Brain Plasticity 78

Inconsistencies and False-Positive Findings 82

The Resilience of Stereotypes 85

Research on Animals 88

Understanding Difference 89

Neuroculture and the Cerebral Subject 93

Conclusion 95

Reference List 96

Articles/Books/Reports 96

Cases 103

Other 103

4 Intersex Variations 104

Introduction 104

What is Intersex? 106

Intersex and Medicalisation 110

DSD Protocols 111

Gender Identity 113

Introduction 113

Optimal Gender Theory and Practice 116

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia 121

Intersex Variations That Impact on Fetal Androgens 123

Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome 126

Conclusion 127

Current Medical Practices 129

Introduction 129

Genital Surgery 133

‘Once and for All’ Treatments 143

Sterilisation 144

Medical Intervention and Gender Identity 148

Conclusion 152

Reference List 153

Articles/Books/Reports 153

Cases 159

Legislation 159

Other 159

5 Transgender in the Australian Family Court 161

Introduction 161

Legal Framework: Consent 163

Special Medical Jurisdiction 164

Coercive Sterilisation Cases 167

Marion’s Case 167

Gender Identity and Gender Dysphoria 170

Medical Approaches to Trans Identity in Minors 174

The ‘Born This Way’ Narrative 178

Re Alex 180

Competing Theories of Trans 181

Treatment: Therapeutic or Non-Therapeutic? 183

Re Jamie 186

Treatment: Therapeutic or Non-Therapeutic? 186

Gender Dysphoria and Neurology 188

Re Kelvin 189

New Medical Evidence or Ideological Shifts? 191

Conclusion 195

Reference List 196

Articles/Books/Reports 196

Cases 200

Legislation 201

Other 201

6 Intersex in the Australian Family Court 203

Introduction 203

The Principles and Values From Marion’s Case 204

Intersex and Gender Identity 208

The Cases 211

Re A (A Child) 211

Re Lesley 213

Re Sally 216

Re Dylan 219

Re Carla 219

Re Kaitlin 222

Conclusions on Judicial Attitudes to Gender Identity 223

Fertility 225

Judicial Process 228

Conclusion 230

Reference List 232

Articles/Books/Reports 232

Cases 234

Other 235

7 Conclusion 236

Reference List 242

Articles/Books/Reports 242

Cases 242

Index 243