Measurement and Detection of Radiation, Third Edition

Nicholas Tsoulfanidis is an adjunct professor at the University of Nevada in Reno and professor emeritus at the Missouri University of Science and Technology. Since June 1997, he has been the editor of Nuclear Technology, an international journal published by the American Nuclear Society. Sheldon Landsberger is the coordinator of the Nuclear and Radiation Engineering Program and a Hayden Head Centennial Endowed Professor at the University of Texas in Austin. He has been a recipient of the Arthur Holly Compton Award from the American Nuclear Society. Both Dr. Tsoulfanidis and Dr. Landsberger have been recipients of the Glenn Murphy Award from the American Society for Engineering Education.

Introduction to Radiation Measurements
What Is Meant by Radiation?
Statistical Nature of Radiation Emission
The Errors and Accuracy and Precision of Measurements
Types of Errors
Nuclear Instrumentation





Statistical Errors of Radiation Counting
Introduction
Definition of Probability
Basic Probability Theorems
Probability Distributions and Random Variables
Location Indexes (Mode, Median, Mean)
Dispersion Indexes, Variance, and Standard Deviation
Covariance and Correlation
The Binomial Distribution
The Poisson Distribution
The Normal (Gaussian) Distribution
The Lorentzian Distribution
The Standard, Probable, and Other Errors
The Arithmetic Mean and Its Standard Error
Confidence Limits
Propagation of Errors
Goodness of Data—x2 Criterion—Rejection of Data
The Statistical Error of Radiation Measurements
The Standard Error of Counting Rates
Methods of Error Reduction
Minimum Detectable Activity
Counter Dead-Time Correction and Measurement of Dead Time





Review of Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Introduction
Elements of Relativistic Kinematics
Atoms
Nuclei
Nuclear Binding Energy
Nuclear Energy Levels
Energetics of Nuclear Decays
The Radioactive Decay Law
Nuclear Reactions
Fission





Energy Loss and Penetration of Radiation through Matter
Introduction
Mechanisms of Charged-Particle Energy Loss
Stopping Power Due to Ionization and Excitation
Energy Loss Due to Bremsstrahlung Emission
Calculation of dE/dx for a Compound or Mixture
Range of Charged Particles
Stopping Power and Range of Heavy Ions (Z > 2, A > 4)
Interactions of Photons with Matter
Interactions of Neutrons with Matter





Gas-Filled Detectors
Introduction
Relationship between High Voltage and Charge Collected
Different Types of Gas-Filled Detectors
Ionization Chambers
Proportional Counters
Geiger–Müller Counters
Gas-Flow Counters
Rate Meters
General Comments about Construction of Gas-Filled Detectors





Scintillation Detectors
Introduction
Inorganic (Crystal) Scintillators
Organic Scintillators
Gaseous Scintillators
The Relationship between Pulse Height and Energy and Type of Incident Particle
The Photomultiplier Tube
Assembly of a Scintillation Counter and the Role of Light Pipes
Dead Time of Scintillation Counters
Sources of Background in a Scintillation Counter
The Phoswich Detector





Semiconductor Detectors
Introduction
Electrical Classification of Solids
Semiconductors
The p-n Junction
The Different Types of Semiconductor Detectors
Radiation Damage to Semiconductor Detectors





Relative and Absolute Measurements
Introduction
Geometry Effects
Source Effects
Detector Effects
Relationship between Counting Rate and Source Strength





Introduction to Spectroscopy
Introduction
Definition of Energy Spectra
Measurement of an Integral Spectrum with a Single-Channel Analyzer (SCA)
Measurement of a Differential Spectrum with an SCA
The Relationship between Pulse-Height Distribution and Energy Spectrum
Energy Resolution of a Detection System
Determination of the Energy Resolution—The Response Function
The Importance of Good Energy Resolution
Brief Description of a Multichannel Analyzer (MCA)
Calibration of an MCA





Electronics
Introduction
Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, and Impedance
A Differentiating Circuit
An Integrating Circuit
Delay Lines
Pulse Shaping
Timing
Coincidence-Anticoincidence Measurements
Pulse-Shape Discrimination
Preamplifiers
Amplifiers
Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC)
Multiparameter Analyzers





Data Analysis Methods
Introduction
Curve Fitting
Interpolation Schemes
Least-Squares Fitting
Folding and Unfolding
Data Smoothing





Photon (Gamma-Ray and X-Ray) Spectroscopy
Introduction
Modes of Energy Deposition in the Detector
Efficiency of X-Ray and Gamma-Ray Detectors: Definitions
Detection of Photons with NaI(Tl) Scintillation Counters
Detection of Gammas with Ge Detectors
CdTe and HgI2 Detectors as Gamma Spectrometers
Detection of X-Rays with a Si(Li) Detector





Charged-Particle Spectroscopy
Introduction
Energy Straggling
Electron Spectroscopy
Alpha, Proton, Deuteron, and Triton Spectroscopy
Heavy-Ion (Z > 2) Spectroscopy
The Time-of-Flight Spectrometer
Detector Telescopes (E dE/dx Detectors)
Position-Sensitive Detectors





Neutron Detection and Spectroscopy
Introduction
Neutron Detection by (n, Charged Particle) Reaction
Fission Chambers
Neutron Detection by Foil Activation
Measurement of a Neutron Energy Spectrum by Proton Recoil
Detection of Fast Neutrons Using Threshold Activation Reactions
Neutron Energy Measurement with a Crystal Spectrometer
The Time-of-Flight Method
Compensated Ion Chambers
Self-Powered Neutron Detectors (SPND)
Concluding Remarks





Activation Analysis
Introduction
Selection of the Optimum Nuclear Reaction
Preparation of the Sample for Irradiation
Sources of Radiation
Irradiation of the Sample
Counting of the Sample
Analysis of the Results
Sensitivity of Activation Analysis
Interference Reactions
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Activation Analysis Method
Prompt Gamma Activation Analysis
Neutron Depth Profile
Neutron Radiography





Health Physics Fundamentals
Introduction
Units of Exposure and Absorbed Dose
The Relative Biological Effectiveness—The Dose Equivalent
Dosimetry for Radiation External to the Body
Dosimetry for Radiation Inside the Body
Internal Dose Time Dependence—Biological Half-Life
Biological Effects of Radiation
Radiation Protection Guides and Exposure Limits
Health Physics Instruments
Proper Use of Radiation


Applications of Radiation Detection
Introduction
Health Physics within Nuclear Power Plants and Radiological Facilities
Portal Monitors and Passive Detection
Interactive Radiation Detection Systems
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles for Radiation Detection
Coincidence and Anti-Coincidence Detection Systems
Nuclear Medicine
Detection of Nuclear Materials/Nonproliferation Issues


Appendix A: Useful Constants and Conversion Factors
Appendix B: Atomic Masses and Other Properties of Isotopes
Appendix C: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Sources Commonly Used
Appendix D: Tables of Photon Attenuation Coefficients
Appendix E: Table of Buildup Factor Constants


Index


Problems, Bibliography, and References appear at the end of each chapter.