Lubricants from Renewable Feedstocks

Subhalaxmi Pradhan, PhD, is an associate professor at Division of Chemistry, School of Basic Sciences, Galgotias University Greater Noida, UP. She has three years of postdoctoral experience from the University of Saskatchewan, Canada and IIT Delhi and 12 years of experience in research and teaching. She has three patents and has published over 40 research papers in scientific journals. She has also edited the book, Biofuel Extraction Techniques, available from Wiley-Scrivener. Lalit Prasad has a PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India. Presently he is serving as a professor of chemistry at the School of Basic Sciences, Galgotias University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India. He has more than a decade teaching and research experience and has published more than 30 research papers book chapters in scientific journals and books. Chandu Madankar,PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Oils, Oleochemicals and Surfactants Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India. He earned his PhD in 2015 from IIT Delhi and was awarded the Canadian Commonwealth Fellowship in the Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, University of Saskatchewan, Canada. He has eight years of experience of research and teaching and has published more than 25 research papers in scientific journals. S. N. Naik, PhD, is an emeritus professor at the Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT Delhi, India. He has more than 35 years of experience in research and teaching. He has several prestigious awards and has published nearly 250 papers in scientific journals. He also has seven patents to his credit and has authored three books.

Preface xxi

1 Prospectus of Renewable Resources for Lubricant Production 1
Suruchi Damle and Chandu S. Madankar

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 History 5

1.3 Background of Biolubricants 5

1.4 Classification of Lubricants 7

1.5 Functions of a Good Lubricant 8

1.6 Renewable Sources for Biolubricant Manufacture 9

1.7 Physicochemical Properties of Bioderived Lubricants 12

1.8 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oils for Manufacturing Biobased Lubricants 15

1.9 Characteristics of Biobased Lubricants 21

1.10 Additives 24

1.11 Biolubricant Applications 26

1.12 Biodegradability and Ecotoxicity of Biolubricants 27

1.13 New Technology Developed for Manufacture of Biolubricants Based on Renewable Resources 27

1.14 Merits and Demerits 29

1.15 Scope and Challenges 30

1.16 Conclusion 31

2 Extraction of Ester-Based Biolubricants from Vegetable Oils 39
Anupama Sharma, Subhalaxmi Pradhan, Pinki Chakraborty and Lalit Prasad

2.1 Introduction 40

2.2 Prospects of Vegetable Oils in Context of Lubricant 42

2.3 Edible Oils as Biolubricant 42

2.4 Nonedible Oils as Biolubricant 44

2.5 Physicochemical Properties of Oils to Act as Lubricant 45

2.6 Production Methodologies Involved in Ester-Based Lubricants 47

2.7 Chemical Modification and Biodegradability of Vegetable Oils 50

2.8 Characterization Techniques of Ester-Based Lubricants 51

2.9 Challenges and Shortcomings of Vegetable Oils as Biolubricants 52

2.10 Factors Affecting Biobased Lubricants 53

2.11 Hydrolytic Stability and Low-Temperature Properties--Role of Additives or Nanomaterials in Improvement of these Properties 55

2.12 Economic and Environmental Acceptability of Ester-Based Lubricants 56

2.13 Current Research and Development for Minimizing the Challenges 57

2.14 Conclusion 58

3 Biobased Epoxide Lubricants 67
Akash Kumar, Radha Gupta, Manish Rawat and Sahil Kohli

3.1 Introduction 67

3.2 Broad Categorization of Lubricants 70

3.3 Biobased Lubricants 73

3.4 Biobased Epoxide Lubricants 76

3.5 Modification and Application of Biobased Epoxy Lubricant 78

3.6 Physiochemical Characteristics of the Epoxide-Based Lubricants 83

3.7 Environmental Acceptability and Economic Importance 85

3.8 Future Prospects 87

3.9 Conclusion 88

4 Biobased Hydrogenated Lubricants 93
Harshita Shakya, Lalit Prasad, Subhalaxmi Pradhan, Pooja Agarwal and Diwakar Chauhan

4.1 Introduction 94

4.2 Different Types of Oil and Fats 95

4.3 Processing Techniques for Oils and Fats 97

4.4 Microalgae Oils: Some Considerations as Lubricants 98

4.5 Hydrogenated and Hydrogenation Lubricants 98

4.6 Lubricants 105

4.7 Types of Lubricants 106

4.8 Biolubricant 108

4.9 Physicochemical Properties of Biolubricant and Reference Lubricant 110

4.10 Catalyst 112

4.11 Production of Biolubricant Using Conventional Catalyst 113

4.12 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils or Animal Fats 115

4.13 The Used Oil as Biolubricants 116

4.14 Using Additives to Enhance the Lubricant’s Qualities 118

4.15 Applications 118

4.16 Use of Vegetable Oil without Modification 119

4.17 Reaction Pathways for Preparation of Biolubricants 120

4.18 Modifications 121

4.19 Production of Biolubricants 124

4.20 Biolubricants and the Environment 124

4.21 National Policy on Biofuels (2022 Amendment) 126

4.22 COVID-19 Impact on Biolubricants 128

4.23 Conclusion 132

4.24 Future Prospects 132

5 Microbial-Based Biolubricants 141
Lovlish Gupta, Monika Chauhan, Ajay Kumar and Diwakar Chauhan

5.1 Introduction 142

5.2 Developmental Methods for Microbial-Based Biolubricants 145

5.3 Principle and Purpose of Microbial-Based Biolubricants 152

5.4 Physicochemical Properties 155

5.5 Applications of SCO and Microbial-Based Biolubricants 158

5.6 Conclusion 161

6 Nanobiolubricants 165
Trinath Biswal and Prafulla K. Sahoo

6.1 Introduction 166

6.2 Biolubricants and Additive Nanoparticles from Nanobiolubricants 168

6.3 Impact of Nanoparticles in Biolubricants 174

6.4 Kinds of Nanoparticle Additive for Preparation of Nanobiolubricants 175

6.5 Different Methods of Chemical Modification for Nanobiolubricants 181

6.6 Tribological Properties of the Nanobiolubricants 184

6.7 Limitations or Drawbacks of Nanolubricants 189

6.8 Role of Some Advanced Catalysts during the Production of Nanobiolubricants 190

6.9 Conclusion and Further Work 191

7 Green Nanofluids: Recent Advances and Applications 199
Abhishek Bhardwaj, Shashank Sharma, Kuldip Dwivedi and Kalpana Singh

7.1 Introduction 200

7.2 Synthesis of Nanofluids 201

7.3 Stability of GNFs 202

7.4 Thermophysical Properties 203

7.5 Effect of Temperature 204

7.6 Applications of Green Nanofluids 205

7.7 Conclusion 212

8 Polyester-Based Biolubricants 221
Susmita S. Paranjpe and Chandu S. Madankar

8.1 Introduction 222

8.2 History 224

8.3 Raw Materials Used for Polyester Biolubricant Production 225

8.4 Modifications of Neopentyl Polyols to Biolubricant Base Stock 228

8.5 Chemical Synthesis of Polyol Esters 229

8.6 Enzymatic Synthesis of Polyol Esters 233

8.7 Neopentyl Polyol Esters for Biolubricants 237

8.8 Characterization of Polyol Esters 242

8.9 Properties of Polyol Esters 245

8.10 Applications of Polyester-Based Biolubricants 246

8.11 Conclusion and Future Scope 249

9 Estolide-Based Biolubricants 259
Prasad Sanap, Deepak Sonawane, Rohan Thakur, Santoshi Agrawal and Amit Pratap

9.1 Introduction 260

9.2 Synthesis and Mechanism of Estolides 263

9.3 Structure Elucidation 273

9.4 Basic Physiochemical and Tribological Properties 276

9.5 Applications and Market Prospects 283

9.6 Conclusion and Future Scope 284

10 Lubricant from Waste Cooking Oil: In-Depth Analysis 291
Shantanu Mukherjee, Tishar Chandar, Subhalaxmi Pradhan and Lalit Prasad

10.1 Introduction 291

10.2 Petroleum-Based Lubricants 294

10.3 Prospects of Biolubricant 295

10.4 Need for Recycling of Waste Cooking Oil 298

10.5 Comparison of Waste Cooking Oil with Neat Oil 299

10.6 Application of Waste Cooking Oil 301

10.7 Purification of Waste Cooking Oil 302

10.9 Relationship between Structure and Physicochemical Properties 307

10.10 Different Modifications Reaction 307

10.11 Additives Used in Biolubricants 323

10.12 Conclusion 327

11 Managing Waste by Generation of Lubricants from Waste Oils 337
Adhidesh S. Kumawat

11.1 Introduction 337

11.2 Waste Oil Generation and Collection 340

11.3 Waste Oil Processing and Regeneration Technologies 346

11.4 Catalytic Materials for Waste Oil Conversion to Lubricants 364

11.5 Future Directions and Concluding Remarks 375

11.6 Conclusion 377

12 Catalysts Used in Biolubricants Production 381
Pavan Kumar Gupta, Deshal Yadav, Sudipta Datta, Shweta Kumari, Shiva Kumar Saw and Gajanan Sahu

12.1 Introduction 382

12.2 Biolubricants 384

12.3 Green Biolubricants 385

12.4 Properties of Biolubricants 386

12.5 Application of Biolubricants 389

12.6 Feedstocks for Biolubricants Synthesis 391

12.7 Chemical Modification Methods for Biolubricant Synthesis 394

12.8 Catalysts Used for Biolubricants Synthesis 398

12.9 Conclusion 402

13 Value Addition/Biorefinery Approaches Towards Biolubricants Production 407
Praveen Kumar Sharma, Suman Singh, Naziya Syed, Prashant Kumar, Shivani Chaturvedi, Ashween Deepak Nannaware, Sunil Kumar Khare and Prasant Kumar Rout

13.1 Introduction 408

13.2 Sources of Lubricant Production-Oleochemicals as Raw, Natural Materials, Synthetic 410

13.3 Production of Biolubricants 413

13.4 Important Characteristics of Bio Lubricants 416

13.5 Biomass Originated Biolubricants 418

13.6 Alternative Lubricants 420

13.7 Additives Blending to Support Lubrication Quality 428

13.8 Various Bio-Lubricants and Their Utility 433

13.9 Future of Biobased Lubricants and Challenges 435

13.10 Conclusion 435

14 Bio-Lubricants: Economic and Environmental Acceptability 445
Chandreyee Saha and Subhalaxmi Pradhan

14.1 Introduction 446

14.2 Base Oils in Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants 447

14.3 Economic Aspect of Using Bio-Lubricant 451

14.4 Environmental Acceptability of Bio-Lubricants 453

14.5 Labeling Program for Environmentally Acceptable Lubricants (EAL) 461

14.6 Conclusion 466

References 466

Index 473