Oil and Gas Pipelines, Multi-Volume

R. Winston Revie, PhD, received his PhD from MIT, M.Eng. (Materials) from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and B.Eng (Metallurgical) from McGill University. He enjoyed a 33-year career at the CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory, Ottawa, Canada, from 1978 to 2011, as scientist, project leader, and program manager for pipeline technology. He is a Past President of the Metallurgical Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, a Past President of the NACE Foundation of Canada, and a Past Director of NACE International. He received the Distinguished Technical Achievement Award of NACE International in 2004 and has received Fellow honors from CIM (1999), NACE International (1999), ASM International (2003), and The Electrochemical Society (2012) among other awards for his work.

CONTENTS

CONTRIBUTORS

PREFACE

PART I DIGITALIZATION OF PIPELINES

1 Digital Future of Pipeline Integrity

Gaurav Singh

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Digital Integrity Framework

1.3 Fast Forward Digital Future Technologies

1.4 Technology Transition with Energy Transition

References

2 Cybersecurity and Safety Implications of Pipelines

Ben Miller and Jason Christopher

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Defining Industrial Cybersecurity

2.3 The Industrial Cybersecurity Challenge

2.4 Industrial Intrusion Case Studies – A Short History

2.5 Industrial Cybersecurity Considerations for Pipeline Operations

2.6 The Five ICS Cybersecurity Critical Controls

2.7 Getting Started:  Common High-Impact Scenarios for Pipeline Operations

2.8 Conclusion

References

3 Practical Applications of Machine Learning to Pipeline Integrity

Michael Gloven

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Machine Learning Fundamentals

3.3 Supervised Learning - Classification

3.4  Supervised Learning – Regression

3.5 Unsupervised Learning

3.6 Final Thoughts

3.7 Summary

References

Bibliography

4 Pipeline Corrosion Management, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning

Khairul Chowdhury, Binder Singh, and Shahidullah Kawsar

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Background

4.3 Analysis Tool: Automated Predictive Analytics Computation Systems

4.4 Problem Example: Predicting Failure by External and Internal Corrosion

4.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

PART II DESIGN

5 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines in a Low-Carbon Economy

Daniel Sandana

5.1 Introduction

5.2 CCUS: An Enabler of Decarbonization

5.3 Transportation of CO2 by Pipeline: Operations

5.4 CO2 Pipeline Transportation: Key Integrity Challenges

5.5 Managing the Safe Repurposing of Vintage Pipelines

References

6 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS)

Katherine Jonsson, Ray Goodfellow, Douglas Evans, and Chitman Lutchman

6.1 Introduction

6.2  Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity

6.3 Regulatory Requirements

6.4 What is a PIMS?

6.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements

6.6 PIMS Function Map

6.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational

6.8 Do: Execute

6.9 Check:  Assurance and Verification

6.10 Act: Management Review

6.11 Culture

6.12 Summary

References

7 SCADA:  Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

Rumi Mohammad, Ian Verhappen, and Ramin Vali

7.1 Introduction

7.2 SCADA Computer Servers

7.3 SCADA Computer Workstations

7.4 Hierarchy

7.5 Runtime and Configuration Databases

7.6 Fault Tolerance

7.7 Redundancy

7.8 High Availability

7.9 Human Factors Design in SCADA Systems

7.10 Alarm Rationalization, Management, and Analysis

7.11 Incident Review and Replay

7.12 Data Quality

7.13 Operator Logbook and Shift Handover

7.14 Training

7.15 SCADA Security

7.16 Cybersecurity

7.17 SCADA Standards

7.18 Pipeline Industry Applications

7.19 Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence

7.20 Communication Media

7.21 Communications Infrastructure

7.22 Communications Integrity

7.23 RTUs and PLCs

7.24 Database

7.25 User-Defined Programs

7.26 RTU/PLC Integrity

7.27 Safety Systems

7.28 IOT/IIOT

7.29 Electrical Classification Compliance

Acronyms, Abbreviations, Terms

Bibliography

8 Material Selection for Fracture Control

William Tyson

8.1  Overview of Fracture Control

8.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation

8.3 Toughness Requirements: Propagation

8.4 Toughness Measurement

8.5 Current Status

References

9 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines

Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi

9.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts

9.2  Strain Demand

9.3  Strain Capacity

9.4  Role of Full-Scale and Curved Wide Plate Testing

9.5  Summary

References

10 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines

Mavis Sika Okyere

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Design Pressure

10.3 Design Factor

10.4  Determination of Components of Stress

10.5  Fatigue

10.6  Expansion and Flexibility

10.7  Corrosion Allowance

10.8  Pipeline Stiffness

10.9  Pipeline Ovality 

10.10  Minimum Pipe Bend Radius

10.11  Pipeline Design for External Pressure

10.12 Check for Hydrotest Conditions

10.13  Summary

Appendix 10.A: Case Study

References

11 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications

Ayman Eltaher

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility

11.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications

11.4 Typical Pipe Properties

11.5 Technology Qualification

11.6 Additional Resources

11.7 Summary

References

12 Residual Stress in Pipelines

Douglas Hornbach and Paul Prevéy

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance

12.3 Residual Stress Measurement

12.4 Control and Alteration of Residual Stresses

12.5 Case Studies of the Effect of Residual Stress and Cold Work

References

13 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity

Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes

13.1 Introduction

13.2  Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis

13.3 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Analysis and Design

Acknowledgments

References

14 Human Factors

Lorna Harron

14.1 Introduction

14.2 What Is “Human Factors”?

14.3 The Human in the System

14.4 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors

14.5 Human Factors and Decision Making

14.6 Application of Human Factors Guidance

14.7 Heuristics and Biases in Decision Making

14.8 Human Factors Contribution to Incidents in the Pipeline Industry

14.9 Human Factors Life Cycle Revisited

14.10 Tools and Methods

14.11 Summary

References

Bibliography

PART III NONMETALLIC PIPELINES

15 Nonmetallic Composite Pipelines

Niels Grigat, Stephan Koß, Ben Vollbrecht, Tim Mölling, Johannes Henrich Schleifenbaum, and Thomas Gries

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Materials

15.3 Manufacturing

15.4 Applications

15.5 Conclusion

References

PART IV MANUFACTURE, FABRICATION, AND CONSTRUCTION

16 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels

Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development

16.3 Texture Control in Pipeline Steels

16.4 Effect of Texture on In-Plane Anisotropy

16.5 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

17 Pipe Manufacture—Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe

Christoph Kalwa

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Manufacturing Process

17.3 Quality Control Procedures

17.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions

17.5 Typical Fields of Application

18 Pipe Manufacture – Spiral Pipe

Franz Martin Knoop

18.1 Manufacturing Process

18.2 Quality Control Procedures

18.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions

18.4 Typical Fields of Applicability

References

19 Pipe Manufacture—Seamless Tube and Pipe

Rolf Kümmerling and Klaus Kraemer

19.1 The Rolling Process

19.2 Further Processing

References

20 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines

Nobuyuki Ishikawa

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method

20.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel with HIC Resistance

20.4  Material Design of Linepipe Steel with SSC Resistance under Severe Sour Conditions

References

21 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity

David Dorling and James Gianetto

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Construction Welding Applications

21.2.1 Double-Joint Welding

21.2.2 Mainline Welding

21.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding

21.3 Non-destructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment

21.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification

21.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking

21.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design

21.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines

21.8  Pipeline Incidents and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action

Appendix 21.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter

Appendix 21.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards

Acknowledgements

References

22 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity

Robert O’Grady

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation

22.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation

22.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies

22.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore

22.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation

Reference

Bibliography

PART V THREATS TO INTEGRITY AND SAFETY

23 Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC): Causes and Mechanisms

Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Fundamentals of TLC

References

24 Management of Geohazard Loading during Pipeline Operation

Andy Young

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Nature of Hazards

24.3 Regulations on Geohazard Management

24.4 Geohazards Management Plan

24.5 Hazard Identification

24.6 Hazard Evaluation

24.7 Hazard Mitigation

References

25 Climate Change, Pipeline Corrosion, and Integrity Management

Binder Singh

25.1 Introduction

25.2 ALARP Factor

25.3 Natural or Man-Made?

25.4 Engineering Steel and Infrastructure

25.5 Reasons for Optimism

25.6 Discussion and Closing Remarks

Caveat and Acknowledgements

Appendix 25.A Acronyms, Definitions, and Criteria

Appendix 25.B Main Corrosion Terms: Modes and Mechanisms

References

Bibliography

26 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil

Homero Castaneda, Hui Wang, and Omar Rosas

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Background

26.3 Critical Factors of Soil Corrosivity that Affect Pipelines

26.4 Identifying Corrosive Environments

26.5 Cathodic Protection and Stray Currents

26.6 Monitoring and Inspection for Corrosion Characterization under Multiscale Conditions

References

27 Knowledge- and Data-Driven External Corrosion Modeling in Pipelines

Hui Wang, Homero Castaneda, and Sreelakshmi Sreeharan

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Background

27.3 Model Framework and Theory

27.4 Model Application

27.5 Limitations of the Approach

27.6 Conclusion

References

28 Electrochemical Noise to Monitor Corrosion of a Coated Metal

Sarah Leeds

28.1 Introduction

28.1.1 Protective Coatings

28.1.2 History of Electrochemical Noise

28.1.3 What is Electrochemical Noise?

28.2 Electrochemical Noise Method

28.3 Applications of ECN

28.3.1 Examples of the Application of Electrochemical Noise

Acknowledgments

References

29 Telluric Influence on Pipelines

David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko

29.1 Introduction

29.2  Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference

29.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity

29.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity

29.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields

29.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment

29.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects

29.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions

29.9 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

30 Factors Controlling Stress Corrosion Cracking and Typical Growth Rates

B N Leis

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Research Concerning the Factors Controlling SCC

30.3 Factors Controlling SCC – Service vs Laboratory Cracking

30.4 Quantifying a Bathtub Speed-Life Curve for High-pH SCC

30.5 Emergence of NN-pH SCC: Its Traits vs High-pH SCC

30.6 Industry Guidance on Crack Speed and the Incidence of SCC

30.6.2 Where and When SCC Might Be Anticipated

30.7 Interface between Integrity and Condition Assessment

30.8 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

31 Processes for High-pH and Near-Neutral-pH Stress Corrosion Cracking

B N Leis

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Imaging SCC and Related Observations

31.3 Compendium of SCC Images:  Observations and Discussion

31.4 Crack Initiation and Growth Behavior on Pipelines

 

31.5 Summary and Key Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

32 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion

Jason S. Lee and Brenda J. Little

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Materials

32.3 Microorganisms

32.4 Internal Corrosion of Pipelines

32.5 External Corrosion of Pipelines

32.6 Conclusions

References

33 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines

Robert E. Melchers

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Asset Management and Prediction

33.3 Pitting

33.4 Model for Long-Term Growth in Pit Depth

33.5 Factors Influencing Maximum Pit Depth Development

33.6 Structural Reliability

33.7  Extreme Value Analysis for Maximum Pit Depth

33.8 Pitting at Welds

33.9 Case Study—Water Injection Pipelines

33.10 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

34 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation

Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy

34.1 Introduction

34.2  Dent Formation Process and Types of Dents

34.3 In-Line-Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization

34.4 Technologies for In-Ditch Mechanical Damage Characterization

34.5 Assessment of Severity of Mechanical Damage

34.6 Mitigation and Repairs

34.7 Continued Challenges

References

35 Sulfide Stress Cracking

Russell D. Kane

35.1 Introduction

35.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking?

35.3 Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking in Pipelines

35.4 Comparison of SSC to Other Sour Cracking Mechanisms

35.5 Influence of Environmental Variables on SSC

35.6 Influence of Metallurgical Variables on SSC in Steels

35.7 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys to Resist SSC

References

36 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service

Russell D. Kane

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC

36.3 Occurrences and Consequences of eSCC

36.4 Guidelines for Identification, Mitigation, and Repair of eSCC

36.5 Path Forward

References

Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers

37 AC Corrosion

Lars Vendelbo Nielsen

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Basic Understanding

37.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management

References

Bibliography

38 Erosion–Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines

Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley, Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon, Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Solid Particle Erosion

38.3 Erosion–Corrosion of Carbon Steel Piping in a CO2 Environment with Sand

38.4 Erosion–Corrosion Modeling and Characterization of Iron Carbonate Erosivity

38.5  Erosion–Corrosion of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys

38.6 Chemical Inhibition of Erosion–Corrosion

38.7 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

39 Black Powder in Oil and Gas Pipelines

Abdelmounam M. Sherik

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Impacts on Operations and Customers

39.3 Internal Corrosion of Sales Gas Transmission Pipelines

39.4 Analysis Techniques

39.5 Black Powder Movement

39.6 Erosive Properties of Black Powder

39.7 Black Powder Management Methods

39.9 Guidance on Handling and Disposal of Black Powder

39.10 Solutions

39.11 Summary

Acknowledgments

References

PART VI PROTECTION

40 Mitigating Top of the Line Corrosion (TLC) Using Corrosion Inhibitors: Types and Application Methods

Aisha H. Al-Moubaraki and Ime Bassey Obot

40.1 Introduction

40.2 Inhibitors Used to Mitigate TLC

40.3 Application Methods for Corrosion Inhibitors under TLC Conditions

References

41 External Coatings

Doug Waslen

41.1 Introduction and Background

41.2 Coating Performance

41.3 Product Testing

41.4 Standards and Application Specification

41.5 Field-Applied Coatings

41.6 Coating Types and Application

Reference 

42 Thermoplastic Liners For Oilfield Pipelines

James F.  Mason

42.1 Introduction

42.2 Codes and Standards

42.3 The Installation Process

42.4 Important Mechanical Design Aspects

42.5 Liner Materials

42.6 Operating a Pipeline with a Liner

42.7 Lined Pipeline Systems—Application Examples

References

43 Cathodic Protection

Sarah Leeds

43.1 Introduction

43.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection

43.3 Fundamentals of Cathodic Protection

43.4 How Cathodic Protection Is Applied

43.5 Design Principles of Cathodic Protection

43.6 Protective Coatings and Cathodic Protection

43.7 Monitoring Cathodic Protection Systems

43.8 Cathodic Protection Criteria

References

PART VII INSPECTION AND MONITORING

44 Using Cathodic Protection for Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Damage and Interference

Gérard Huss, Carine Lacroix, Éric Parizot, and David Xu

44.1 Introduction

44.2 Background

44.3 Testing Procedure and Process

44.4 Real-Time Detection of an Electrical Short between a Pipeline and Its Casing

44.5 Real-Time Detection of Mechanical Aggression on a Pipeline

44.6 Real-Time Detection of a Lightning Strike

44.7 Discussion

References

45 Airborne LiDAR for Pipeline Inspection and Leak Detection

Ashwin Yerasi

45.1 Introduction

45.2  LiDAR Measurements

45.3  Wavelength Bands

45.4  Operational Techniques

45.5 Ancillary Components

45.6 Inspection Report

45.7 LiDAR Developments for Natural Gas Pipeline Leak Surveillance

Appendix 45.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter

References

46 3D-Geolocalization by Magnetometry Using UAS: A Novel Method for Buried Pipeline Mapping and Bending Strain Assessment

Mehdi M. LAICHOUBI, Hamza KELLA BENNANI, Ludovic Berthelot, Vincent BENET, Miaohang HU, Michel PINET, and Samir TAKILLAH

46.1 Introduction

46.2 3D-Localisation and Depth of Cover Assessment

46.3 Materials and Methods

46.4 Case Study and Operating Procedure

46.5 Performance of the 3D-Localisation

46.6 Generalized Study on Eight GRTgaz Pipeline Spots

46.7 Bending Strain Assessment

46.8 Drone-Based Bending Strain (DBBS) Case Study

46.9 Conclusion

References

47 Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring

Nageswara Lalam and Ruishu Wright

47.1 Introduction

47.2 Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS)

47.3 Distributed Acoustic Sensing (DAS)

47.4 Distributed Chemical Sensing for Corrosion and Corrosivity Monitoring

47.5 Challenges and Opportunities

47.6 Conclusion

References

48 Direct Assessment

John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski

48.1 Introduction

48.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA)

48.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking DA (SCCDA)

48.4 Internal Corrosion DA (ICDA)

References

49 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes

Daniel E. Powell

49.1 Introduction—Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes

49.2 Corrosion Coupons and Electrical Resistance Corrosion Probes

49.3 Placing Corrosion Monitoring Coupons or Electronic Probes within Pipelines

49.4 Monitoring Results “Drive” Chemical Treatment and Maintenance Pigging Programs

49.5 Relative Sensitivities of NDT versus Internal Corrosion Monitoring Techniques

49.6  Seek Consistency between Internal Corrosion Monitoring and NDT Results  - Confirm Trends

49.7  Look for Consistency: Fluid Sample Analysis Should Complement and Verify Monitoring Results

49.8 Summary

49.9 Definitions of Corrosion Monitoring Terms from NACE 3T199 © NACE International 2012

References

50 In-Line Inspection (ILI) (“Intelligent Pigging”)

Neb I. Uzelac

50.1 Introduction

50.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management

50.3 Running ILI Tools

50.4 Types of ILI Tools and Their Purpose

50.5 Utilizing ILI Data/Verification

50.6 Integrating ILI Data

Appendix 50.A: Sample Pipeline Inspection Questionnaire (Nonmandatory)

References

Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content

51 Inspection of Offshore Pipelines

Konrad Reber

51.1 The Inspection Challenge in Offshore Pipelines

51.2 Internal Inspection of Offshore Pipelines

51.3 External Inspection Methods for Subsea Pipelines

51.4 Inspection of Risers

51.5 Conclusions

References

52 Tethered Inspection of Riser System for Wall Thickness and Cracks

A. Enters, T.-S. Kristiansen, and U. Schneider

52.1 Introduction

52.2 Tethered Tool Principle

52.3 Case Study: 10-Inch Rigid Offshore Oil Riser Inspection for Wall Thickness and Cracks

52.4 The Reinspection Project

52.5 Summary and Benefits

Reference

53 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection

KONRAD REBER

53.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing

53.2 Enhanced Eddy Current Testing

53.3 Applications for Pipeline Inspection

References

54 Unpiggable Pipelines

Tom Steinvoorte

54.1 Introduction

54.2 Challenging Pipeline Inspection Approach

54.3 Free-Swimming ILI Tools for Challenging Pipeline Inspections

54.4 Self-Propelled Inspection Solutions

References

Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information

55 In-The-Ditch Pipeline Inspection

Greg Zinter

55.1 Overview

55.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines

55.3 NDE and a Pipeline Integrity Program

55.4 Pipeline Coatings

55.5 Types of Anomalies

55.6 NDE Measurement Technologies

55.7 Excavation Package

55.8 Data Collection

55.9 Conducting In-the-Ditch Assessment

55.10 Data Management

55.11 Recent Technological Developments

55.12 Summary

Acknowledgments

Reference

Bibliography

56 Flaw Assessment

Ted L. Anderson

56.1 Overview

56.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental?

56.2 Assessing Metal Loss

56.3 Crack Assessment

56.4 Dents

References

57 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities

Greg Szuch, Mike Reed, and Keith Leewis

57.1 Introduction

57.2 Elements of a F-IMP

57.3 Building a Facility Integrity Plan

57.4 Final Thoughts

References

Bibliography: Essential Reading

58 Pipeline Geohazard Detection Using Satellite InSAR

Murray Down and Jon Leighton

58.1 Introduction: Why InSAR for Pipelines

58.2 Satelllite InSAR Simplified

58.3 Specifying InSAR Requirements 

Bibliography

59 Integrity Management of Pipelines with Cracking

Michael Palmer

59.1 Introduction

59.2 What Are Cracks and How Do We Find Them?

59.3 Integrity Assessment of Cracks

59.4 What Can Be Done to Manage the Integrity of a Pipeline with Cracks?

References

PART VIII MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, REPLACEMENT, REUSE, AND ABANDONMENT

60 Hydrogen and the Energy Transition

Neil Gallon and Adrian Horsley

60.1 Introduction

60.2 Hydrogen Storage and Transport

60.3 Designing or Repurposing a Hydrogen Pipeline

60.4 Differences in the Integrity Management Approach between Hydrogen and Natural Gas Pipelines

60.4.1 Probability of Failure

60.4.2 Consequence

60.4.3 Implications for Integrity Management in Hydrogen

References

61 Pipeline Cleaning

Randy L. Roberts

61.1 Introduction

61.2 Contaminates

61.3 Progressive Pigging

61.4 Pig Types

61.5 Durometer

61.6 Mechanical and Liquid (Chemical) Cleaning

61.7 On-Line or Off-Line

61.8 Cleaning a Pipeline

61.9 How Clean Do I Need to Be?

61.10 Summary

References

62 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure

Brian N. Leis

62.1 Introduction

62.2 Background

62.3 Evolution of Line Pipe Steel, Pipe Making, and Pipeline Construction

62.4 Pipeline System Expansion and the Implications for “Older” Pipelines

62.5 The Evolution of Pipeline Codes and Standards, and Regulations

62.6 Some Unique Aspects of Early and Vintage Pipelines

62.7 Management Approach and Challenges

62.8 Closure

Acknowledgments

References

63 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves

William A. Bruce, Melissa Gould, and John Kiefner

63.1 Introduction

63.2 Background

63.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves

63.4 Comparison of Steel Sleeves and Fiber Reinforced Composite Repairs

63.5 Welding onto an In-Service Pipeline

63.6 Summary and Conclusions

References

64 Pipeline Repair

Robert Smyth and David Futch

64.1 Introduction

64.2 Background

64.3 Defect Identification

64.4 Safety

64.5 Protocols

64.6 Recoat

64.7 Pipe Replacement

64.8 Grinding/Sanding

64.9 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves, Type A and B

64.10 Epoxy-Filled Sleeves

64.11 Steel Compression Sleeves

64.12 Composite Reinforcement Sleeves

64.12.1 Designing an Effective Composite Repair

64.13 Thin Sheet Steel Coil Wrap

64.14 Hot Tapping

64.15 Direct Deposition Welding

64.16 Mechanical Clamps

64.17 Temporary Repairs

64.18 Applicability to Various Defect Types

References

65 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup

Merv Fingas

65.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview

65.2 Response to Oil Spills

65.3 Types of Oil and Their Properties

65.4 Behavior of Oil in the Environment

65.5 Analysis, Detection, and Remote Sensing of Oil Spills

65.6 Containment on Water

65.7 Oil Recovery on Water

65.8 Separation, Pumping, Decontamination, and Disposal

65.9 Spill-Treating Agents

65.10 In Situ Burning

65.11 Shoreline Cleanup and Restoration

65.12 Oil Spills on Land

References

66 Pipeline Abandonment

Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes

66.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment?

66.2 Abandonment Planning

66.3 Procedures for Abandoning Pipelines and Related Facilities

66.4 Post-Abandonment Physical Issues

66.5 Post-Abandonment Care

References

PART IX RISK MANAGEMENT

67 Risk Management of Pipelines

Lynne C. Kaley

67.1 Overview

67.2 Qualitative and Quantitative RBI Approaches

67.3 Development of Inspection Programs

67.4 Putting RBI into Practice

67.5 Conclusion: Evaluating RBI Methodologies

References

Bibliography

68 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management with Lessons Learned

Binder Singh and Ben Poblete

 68.1 Introduction

68.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions

68.3 Life Cycle

68.4 Case Histories

68.5 Codes, Standards, Recommended Practices, and Regulations

68.6 Corrosion Risk Analysis, Inspection, and Monitoring Methodologies

68.7 Lessons Learned, Recommendations, and Future Strategies

Caveat and Acknowledgments

References

Bibliography

69 Pipeline Operational Intrusions

Errol R. A. Eccles

69.1 Introduction

69.2 Operations Management and Risk

69.3 Risk Assessment

69.4 Operations Management

69.5 Process Safety Management

69.6 Work Management

69.7 Emergency and Incident Management

69.8 Management of Change (MOC)

69.9 Competence

69.10 Risk Management

69.11 Information Technology (IT)

69.12 Summary

69.13 Terms and Definitions

Acknowledgments

References

PART X CASE HISTORIES

70 Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking on Onshore Pipelines Driven by Cathodic Protection - Case Studies

Pablo Cazenave, Katina Jimenez, Ming Gao, and Ravi Krishnamurthy

70.1  Background

70.2 Investigation of a Gas Transmission Pipeline Failure in Argentina

70.3 Mechanisms of Cracking

70.4 Similar Cases in Europe, North America, and the Literature

70.5 Effects of CP-related Hydrogen on Other Types of Cracking

70.6 Mitigation strategies

70.7 Closing remarks

References

71 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study—Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions

Arnold L. Lewis II

71.1 Introduction

71.2 Study Conclusions

71.3 Summary

Acknowledgment

References

72 Shell FLAGS Inspection Case Study

J. Nonemaker, T. Steinvoorte, and R. Subramanian

72.1  Introduction

72.2  The Challenge

72.3  The Solution

72.4  Field Work

72.5  Result

73 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multi-Diameter Pipelines – A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project

Luciano  Baptista, Tom Steinvoorte, Stephan Harmsen, and Carlos Enrique Sabido

73.1 Introduction

73.2 Background

73.3 Challenge

73.4 Solution

73.5 Scope

73.6 Tool Design

73.7 Testing

73.8 Gauging and Inspection Runs

73.9 Benefit

References

GLOSSARY

Part 1: Abbreviations

Part 2: Selected Terms