Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Forensic Neuroscience (eBook)

Anthony R. Beech, DPhil, FBPsS, is Professor Emeritus at the University of Birmingham, UK. Adam J. Carter, PhD, is a psychologist working for Her Majesty's Prison and Probation Service, England and Wales. Ruth E. Mann, PhD, is a psychologist working for Her Majesty's Prison and Probation Service, England and Wales. Pia Rotshtein, PhD, is a neuroscientist in the Department of Psychology at the University of Birmingham, UK.

The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Forensic Neuroscience 3
Contents 9
About the Editors 13
List of Contributors 15
Part I Introduction 27
1 Neuroscience in Forensic Settings: Origins and Recent Developments 29
Introduction 31
Forensic Neuroscience: Origins and Developments in 19th-Century Phrenology 32
The Case of Phineas Gage 33
Other Early Genetic and Neurobiology Insights 34
Approaches to Explaining Crime from a Brain-based Perspective 36
The Social Brain 38
Recent Approaches to Understanding Criminality from a Neurobiological Perspective 40
Structural and Functional Evidence of Problems in Offenders 42
Neuropsychological and Neurophysiological Evidence of Problems in Offenders 43
Conclusions and Structure of the Book 46
Notes 46
Recommended reading 47
References 47
2 A Brief Introduction to Neuroscience 51
Introduction 53
Behavioral Neuroscience 55
Human Brain Development 56
Prenatal development 57
Postnatal development 57
Understanding the Functions of the Brain and Peripheral Nervous Systems 59
The central nervous system 59
The peripheral nervous system 68
Cellular Neuroscience 69
Neurons 69
Glia 71
Neurotransmitters 71
Methods to Examine the Brains Structure and Activity 75
Examining the effects of lesions on an individuals neuropsychology 75
Neuroimaging 77
Methods to examine activity in the peripheral nervous system 81
Conclusions 82
Recommended Reading 83
References 83
Part II General Neuroscience Research 85
3 The Neurobiology of Aggressive Behavior 87
Introduction 90
Alternative Approaches to Neurobiological Investigation of Aggressive Behavior 90
Experimental Findings 92
Autonomic activity and reactivity 92
Electrocortical activation and reactivity 95
Neuroimaging 97
An Integrative Conceptual Framework for Understanding Aggression Proneness 100
Practical and Ethical Implications 101
Identification of aggressive individuals 101
Legal categorization 102
Refinement of violence interventions 102
Conclusions 102
Recommended Reading 103
References 103
4 The Neurobiology of Sexual Behavior and Sexual Attraction 109
Introduction 111
What is Sexual Behavior? 112
Sexual Motivation 113
The Sexual Incentive Stimuli 114
The Sexual Central Motive State: Hormones 117
Female rodents 117
Female, non-human primates 117
Women 119
Male rodents 121
Male non-human primates 121
The human male 121
The Sexual Central Motive State: Brain Sites 121
Females 121
Males 122
Bisexuality and Homosexuality 122
Drugs and Sexual Motivation 123
Conclusions: Is There Any Neurobiological Basis for Socially Unacceptable Sexual Behaviors? 124
Recommended Reading 125
References 126
5 Reward Sensitivity and Behavioral Control 131
Introduction 132
Brain Systems Underlying Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescence and Young Adulthood 133
Influences on Risk-Taking Behavior in Adolescence and Young Adulthood 136
Taking Risks across the Lifespan 140
Individual Differences and Risk-Taking Behavior: The Effect of Personality Traits 141
Gender Differences in Risk-Taking Behavior 142
Conclusions 143
Recommended Reading 144
References 144
6 The Neurobiology of Emotion Regulation 151
Introduction 152
Key Brain Regions to Consider in ER 152
Subcortical regions 153
Cortical regions 154
Models of ER 155
Modal and process models 155
Dual-process framework 158
Neural Bases of ER 158
Explicit ER 158
Reappraisal 159
Suppression 160
Implicit ER 161
Neurodevelopment of ER 162
Implications for Forensic Applications 164
Conclusions 165
Recommended Reading 165
References 165
7 The Social Neuroscience of Empathy and its Relationship to Moral Behavior 171
Introduction 172
The Evolutionary Roots of Empathy 173
The Development of Empathy 176
Neurobiological Mechanisms Underpinning Empathy 179
Social Factors Impact the Neural Response to the Distress of Others 183
The Lack of Empathy Contributes to Callous Disregard of the Welfare of Others 184
Empathy can Conflict with Morality 187
Conclusions 188
Notes 189
Recommended Reading 189
References 190
8 The Neuroscience of Deception 197
Introduction 198
The Neuroscience of Deception 199
Parts of the Brain Associated with Deception 200
The prefrontal cortex 200
The anterior cingulate cortex 202
Measuring Deception 202
The Development of Deceptive Behavior 204
Developmental Disorders Associated with Deception 205
Autism 205
Oppositional defiant disorder 206
Neurological and Personality Disorders and Deceptive Behavior 206
Antisocial personality disorder and malevolent use of deception 206
Parkinsons disease and the inability to produce a lie 207
Schizophrenia and disorganized planning 208
Conclusions 209
Recommended Reading 210
References 211
Part III Neurobiology of Offending 215
9 The Neurobiological Underpinnings of Psychopathy 217
Introduction 219
Psychopathy: From Definition Through Assessment to Misconceptions 220
Conduct Problems and Callous-Unemotional Traits: Psychopathy in Youth 222
Autonomic Abnormalities in Psychopathy 223
Heart rate 224
Electrodermal activity 224
Startle response 225
Endocrine Abnormalities in Psychopathy 226
Cortisol abnormalities 226
Thyroid dysfunction 226
Oxytocin levels 227
Neuropsychological Evidence 227
Evidence of vmPFC dysfunction 228
Evidence of amygdala dysfunction 229
Neuroimaging Research in Psychopathy 231
Functional neuroimaging 231
Structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) 236
Methodological Considerations in Neuroimaging Studies 240
Conclusions 241
Implications for Practice 242
Notes 242
Recommended Reading 242
References 243
10 Antisocial Personality Disorder 255
Introduction 257
Lifetime Prevalence of ASPD and CD 259
Sex Differences in CD/ASPD 260
Diagnoses of CD/ASPD Identify a Heterogeneous Population 260
Psychopathy 261
Substance misuse 261
ADHD 261
ADs 262
Depression 262
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) 262
Schizophrenia 263
Summary 263
Relationship between CD/ASPD and Criminality 264
Violence Towards Others 264
Victimisation 265
Heritability of CD/ASPD 265
Genes Associated with CD/ASPD 266
Epigenetic Changes in MAOA and 5-HTT Genes 269
Environmental Toxins 270
Neural Abnormalities in Individuals with CD/ASPD Detected by Brain Imaging 270
Brain Abnormalities in Persons with CD/ASPD Detected by Neuropsychological Tests 274
CD as a Precursor of Schizophrenia 277
Treatments for CD/ASPD 280
Conclusions 281
Implications for practice 281
Note 281
Recommended Reading 282
References 282
11 Offenders with Autism Spectrum Disorder 299
Introduction 300
Autism Spectrum Disorder 302
Clinical features and development of ASD 303
Comorbidity 304
Etiology 304
Models/Theories of ASD 305
The deficient mentalizing model 305
The weak central coherence theory 307
The Neuroscience of ASD 307
Neurostructural abnormalities 307
Neurofunctional associations 308
ASD and Offending 310
Prevalence of criminality in clinical ASD groups 314
Risk factors for offending in ASD 315
Conclusions and Future Research Questions 318
Implication for Forensic Practice, Ethical Implications, and Policy 319
Recommended Reading 320
References 320
12 The Neuroscience of Violent Offending 327
Introduction 328
Neuroimaging 329
The frontal lobe and prefrontal cortex 330
The temporal lobe 333
The limbic system 334
Other brain regions of interest 336
Neuropsychology 337
General intelligence 338
Verbal and spatial/performance intelligence 340
Executive functioning 340
Psychophysiology 343
Conclusions 347
Implications for Practice 347
Note 348
Recommended Reading 348
References 349
13 The Neuroscience of Sexual Offending 359
Introduction 361
Explanations of Sexual Offending Indicating Neuropsychological Problems 361
Differences in Brain Structure in Sexual Offenders 363
Risk Factors Indicating Neuropsychological Problems 364
Sexual deviance 365
Affect regulation 370
Impulsivity 370
Antisociality 372
Cognitive ability/intellectual disability 372
Conclusions 373
Implications for Forensic Practice, Ethical Implications, and Policy 374
Note 376
Recommended Reading 376
References 376
14 The Neuroscience of Acquisitive/Impulsive Offending 385
Introduction 387
Defining Impulsivity 388
The Neuroscience of Impulse Control 389
The Neurochemistry of Impulsivity 392
The Development/Non-Development of Impulse Control Processes 394
Changes in Adolescence that Might Explain the Increase in Offending Behavior 397
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) 399
Substance misusing parents 401
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) 401
Effects of TBI on the brain 402
Conclusions 402
Implications for Forensic Practice 403
Note 404
Recommended Reading 404
References 405
15 Neurobiology of Brain Injury and its Link with Violence and Extreme Single and Multiple Homicides 411
Introduction 412
Brain Injury in the Offender Populations 413
Frontal lobe and tertiary areas of the brain in offenders 415
Cavum septum pellucidum (CSP) in offenders 416
Studies Investigating TBI in Single Homicide and Sexual Murderers 419
Studies investigating TBI in multiple homicide 423
Legal implications 429
Caution in interpreting an association between brain injury and single and multiple homicide 429
Forensic neuropsychological evaluation of the violent offender 430
Alteration in mental status and the mental status examination 431
Estimating premorbid intelligence and functioning of offenders with TBI 431
Assessing levels of attention in violent offenders 432
Post-traumatic amnesia 433
History 433
Conclusions 438
Recommended Reading 438
References 439
16 The Neurobiology of Offending Behavior in Adolescence 447
Introduction 448
Is the Age-Crime Curve Partly Explained by Developmental Changes in Brain Structure and Function? 452
Does Adolescent Offending Have a Neurobiological Basis? 453
The Neurobiological Basis of Sex Differences in Antisocial Behavior and Offending 454
Neurobiological Research Evaluating the Developmental Taxonomic Theory of Antisocial Behavior 459
Recidivism and Continuity Versus Discontinuity in Antisocial Behavior 465
The Emerging Field of Neurocriminology 467
Conclusions 469
Notes 470
Recommended Reading 470
References 471
17 Alcohol-Related Aggression and Violence 481
Introduction 482
Social-Cognitive Models 484
The myopia hypothesis 485
Cognitive disruption 486
Social information processing 486
Vulnerability Factors in Human and Animal Research 489
Summary and Future Direction 493
Note 494
Recommended Reading 494
References 495
The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Forensic Neuroscience 507
Contents 513
About the Editors 517
List of Contributors 519
Part IV Neurobiological Bases to Risk Factors for Offending 531
18 Genetic Contributions to the Development of Psychopathic Traits and Antisocial Behavior in Youths 533
Introduction 534
Etiology of Callous-Unemotional/Psychopathic Traits from Twin Studies 536
Genetic and environmental contributions 536
Sex differences in the etiology of callous-unemotional traits 542
Contributions accounting for the stability and change in callous-unemotional traits 543
Overlap in the etiology of callous-unemotional traits and antisocial behavior 545
Etiology of antisocial behavior with and without callous-unemotional traits 547
Molecular Genetic Studies and Callous-Unemotional Traits/Antisocial Behavior 547
Implications for Interventions and Policy Making 550
Conclusions 552
Notes 553
Recommended Reading 553
References 553
19 Developmental Risk Factors 557
Introduction 559
Developmental Risk Factors and Offending 560
Prenatal factors 561
Perinatal risk factors 564
Postnatal/childhood risk factors 565
Problematic parent-child interactions (attachment) 568
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) 569
Modifying Environmental Risk Factors 570
Conclusions 571
Notes 573
Recommended Reading 573
References 573
20 Mental Illness as a Putative Risk Factor for Violence and Aggression 581
Introduction 583
Evaluating The Association Between Mental Illness And Violence 585
Schizophrenia 585
Schizophrenic symptomatology 585
Comorbidity of schizophrenia and substance abuse 586
Comorbidity of schizophrenia and personality disorder 587
The association between socio-cognitive abilities and violence in schizophrenia 589
Neurochemical and neurobiological abnormalities in schizophrenia 589
Autism 591
Personality Disorders 592
Conclusions 594
Implications for Forensic Practice and Policy 595
Recommended Reading 596
References 596
21 Modifying Risk Factors 603
Introduction 605
Risk assessment and management 606
Beyond RNR: Including strengths-based and protective factors 607
Strengths-Based Neuroscience 611
Mindfulness training 612
Aerobic exercise 614
Conclusions and Recommendations 616
Notes 617
Recommended Reading 618
References 618
Part V Rehabilitation 625
22 Engaging with Forensic Populations 627
Introduction 628
Brief Overview of How the Brain Develops and Functions 629
Trauma and the Brain 629
What is the Extent of Neurological Problems within Forensic Populations? 630
What are the Implications for Treatment? 631
Brain Adaptation 632
Neural Plasticity Mechanisms in Non-Forensic Clients 632
Brain Friendly Treatment Approaches 633
Using brain friendly approaches to overcome language deficits 634
Using visual methods 636
Using auditory methods 637
Using kinesthetic methods 638
Brain Friendly Approaches that Help Individuals Who Have Executive Functioning Deficits 640
Its up to You! The Biggest Obstacle to Accessible Delivery is Us 641
Conclusions 643
Recommended Reading 644
References 645
23 Brain Scanning and Therapeutics 651
Introduction 653
Overall Decreased Perfusion Due to Toxicity, Illness, or Substance Abuse 655
Substance abuse and violence 656
TBI Patterns 658
TBI in forensic populations 660
Cognitive decline and Neural Degeneration (Dementia) 660
Alzheimer's disease and frontotemporal dementia in forensic populations 662
Hyperfrontality and Negative Emotionality 663
Hypofrontality and Behavioral Problems 665
Links between hypofrontality and aggression/violence in forensic populations 665
Mood Instability, Memory Problems and Temporal Lobe Abnormalities 666
Temporal lobe abnormalities within a forensic population 668
Subtyping Dimensional Behavior to Predict Treatment Response: Aggression and Depression 668
Subtyping aggression 669
Subtyping depression 670
Conclusions: SPECT imaging in forensic populations 670
Implications for Practice 671
Notes 672
Recommended Reading 672
References 673
24 Therapy for Acquired Brain Injury 681
Introduction 682
Prevalence of ABI Among Offenders 684
The Neurobiology of Impulsivity and Aggression 685
Assessment of ABI 687
Assessment of neurocognitive impairment 687
Assessment of challenging behaviors 688
Risk assessment for harmful behaviors 689
A Neurobehavioral Framework for Rehabilitation 691
Treatment Approaches for ABI 696
Conclusions 701
Implications for practice 701
Recommended Reading 702
References 703
25 The Impact of Physical Exercise on Antisocial Behavior 709
Introduction 710
The Link between Cognitive Deficits and Antisocial Behavior 711
Physical Exercise Enhances Various Aspects of Cognitive Functioning 711
Hippocampal Abnormalities and Antisocial Behavior 713
Enhanced hippocampal features due to physical exercise 713
Role of Monoamines in Antisocial Behavior 714
Beneficial changes in monoamine synthesis in response to physical exercise 716
Insufficient BDNF and Criminogenic Traits 717
Increased BDNF availability as a result of physical exercise 718
Conclusions and Implications for Practice 719
Recommended Reading 720
References 721
26 Treating Emotion Dysregulation in Antisocial Behavior 727
Introduction 728
Antisocial Behavior and Impaired Emotion Regulation 730
Traumatic Early Experiences and Antisocial Behavior 731
Neural Circuits Underlying Emotion Regulation 731
Mindfulness 735
Mindfulness in forensic settings 736
Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback Techniques 738
Neural correlates of HRV 739
Biofeedback Techniques 741
Conclusions and Implication for Forensic/Practice, Ethical Implications and Policy 742
Recommended Reading 744
References 744
27 The Pharmacological Treatment of Sex Offenders 753
Introduction 755
The Rationale for Prescribing Medication in Sexual Offenders 756
Sex Offending: Behavior or Pathology? 757
Neurobiological Targets for Prescribing 759
Testosterone 759
Dopamine and serotonin 762
The role of other hormones and neurotransmitters 763
Medications Used in The Management of Sexual Arousal 763
Anti-androgen medication 765
SSRIs 767
Anti-psychotic and other medication 767
Prescribing Protocols 768
Conclusions and Implications for Practice and Policy 769
Recommended Reading 770
References 771
28 Understanding and Using Compassion-Focused Therapy in Forensic Settings 775
Introduction 777
The Older and Newer Brain – How the Brain Sets Us Up for Difficulties 778
How Motives Organize the Mind 780
CFT and the Three Systems of Emotion 782
The Power of Threat 783
Attachment and Affiliation 784
The Nature of Compassion 785
Shame and guilt 786
Skills of Compassion 789
Processing pain 790
Fears of compassion 790
The Processes of CFT 791
Assessment 792
Psychoeducation 792
Formulation within the context of the evolutionary model 792
Clarifying the nature of compassion and dispelling myths: building the therapeutic contract for compassion work 793
Preparing for compassion work 794
Developing the Compassionate Self 796
Putting the compassionate self to work 796
Conclusions 799
Implications for Forensic Practice 799
Note 800
Recommended Reading 800
References 800
29 The Neurobiology of Eye Movement Desensitization Reprocessing Therapy 805
Introduction 806
The Processes Involved in EMDR 810
Evidence for the Impact of EMDR 812
How Trauma Affects the Brain 814
Memory, PTSD, and the Brain 815
EMDR and episodic memory 816
Mechanisms of Action in EMDR 817
Psychophysiology 817
Neuroplasticity 817
Epigenetics 818
The working memory hypothesis 819
REM sleep 819
AIP 820
Eye Movements in EMDR 820
The Relationship Between EMDR and CBT 822
EMDR Research and Training 822
Conclusions 824
Recommended reading 826
References 826
30 Adjusting the Lens 833
Introduction 834
The Advantages of a Developmental Focus 835
Developmental Issues and Sexual Behavior Problems 836
The importance of attachment relationships 837
The impact of trauma on neurodevelopment 838
Defining a Developmental Approach 840
Assessment 841
Assessment instruments 842
Treatment goals and progress 843
Treatment interventions from a developmental perspective 851
The role of supportive systems and the environment 855
Conclusions 856
Recommended Reading 857
References 858
Part VI Ethical, Legal, and Political Implications 863
31 The Impact of Neglect, Trauma, and Maltreatment on Neurodevelopment 865
Introduction 867
Key Principles of Neurobiology 869
Brain development: Timing and process 869
Impact of trauma and neglect on the stress response systems 870
State-dependent functioning of neural systems 874
Neurosociology: Importance of relational neurobiology 875
Impaired cortical development and executive functioning 877
Implications for the juvenile justice system 878
Prevention, early identification, and diversion 879
Sentencing and intervention 879
Conclusions 881
Note 881
Recommeded Reading 881
References 882
32 Forensic Neuropsychology and Violence 887
Introduction: Violence and Brain Imaging 889
Biopsychosocial and Neurodevelopmental Risk Factors in Violence 891
Violence and neuropsychological functioning 892
Early trauma, brain development, and violence 894
Family factors and violence 895
Violence and Specific Diagnoses, Conditions, and Neuropsychological Functioning 896
ADHD 896
Autism spectrum disorder 898
TBI 901
IQ and language-based learning disorders 902
Neuropsychological assessment of murderers 903
Substance use disorders 906
Sexual Violence, Neuroimaging, and Neuropsychological Functioning 907
Neuroimaging 907
Neuropsychological functioning 910
Forensic and Legal Applications of Neuroscience and the Law 912
Approaches to violence risk assessment 912
A brief review of risk assessment approaches 912
Toward neuroprediction in risk assessment 915
Forensic neuropsychology and neuroscience and its application in legal proceedings 915
Conclusions 926
Notes 927
Recommended Reading 927
References 927
33 Forensic Neuropsychology in the Criminal Court 939
Introduction 940
Criminal law and responsibility 941
Neuropsychology in the courtroom: Applications and limitations 946
Conclusions 961
Recommended Reading 963
References 963
34 Forensic Neuropsychology 967
Introduction 968
Antisocial and Pro-Social Behavior in Recent Public Policy 969
Sociological Accounts of Criminal Behavior 971
Geographies of Criminality 977
Policing and criminal spaces 977
Law, space, and power 979
Prison, hyperincarceration, and the punitive state 980
Conclusions 982
Notes 982
Recommended Reading 983
References 983
Part VII Conclusions 987
35 Explanation in Forensic Neuroscience 989
Introduction 989
The Neuroscience Perspective 990
Forensic Neuroscience and the Explanation of Crime 991
The focus of inquiry 991
Causal mechanisms 992
Explanation in forensic neuroscience 993
Conclusions 994
Recommended Reading 995
References 995
36 Considerations for the Forensic Practitioner 997
Introduction 997
General Neurobiology Research and the Forensic Practitioner 999
Risk Assessment: A Neuroscientific Perspective 1000
Managing and Supervising Forensic Clients: A Neuroscientifically Informed Approach 1001
Case Formulation: Adding a Neuroscientific Component to the Picture of an Individual 1003
Engaging and Connecting: Neuroscience and Relationships 1003
Rehabilitation: Neuroscience and Change 1004
Future Directions 1005
Conclusions 1006
Recommended Reading 1007
References 1007
Index 1009
EULA 1030

"Taken together, this is not the multi-volume set that discourages reading through its sheer size. In fact, it draws the reader in and is hard to put down. In all, the editors clearly kept the brain in mind (to borrow a pun) when constructing this set. Having clearly learned the lessons of their own subject material, it is by far the most comprehensive yet user- friendly resource in this area to date."
--David S. Prescott, LICSW, Fellow and Past-president, The Association for the Treatment of Sexual Abusers

"Across the 2 volumes the editors have drawn together the broadest expertise in the field and produced what is in my view an accomplished and masterful exposition of the field of Forensic Neuroscience. In my view this book is long overdue in seeking to draw together the variety of strands that we will have all considered in our practice: albeit in an at times disparate fashion. Being able to make reference to a series of expert sources, across aspects of a presenting case in one place is of great benefit.... A must have for all on their 'pre order' Christmas list!"
--Martin Fisher, CPsychol AFBPsS CSci Hon. MBPsS Europsych, Forensic Update, Co-Editor

"The volume successfully combines the various authors' academic prowess and the years of practitioner and research experience that the accomplished editors bring with them. This means that the book charts out the origins of neuroscience in forensic settings right from the phrenology days to good old Phineas Gage and the 'social brain'. This handbook is, therefore, an essential text for anyone looking to know the current status of forensic research at the basic, intermediate and advanced level across multiple forensic settings. Something for everyone!"
--Aarohi Khare, Doctoral Researcher, University of Kent