Marine Renewable Energy (eBook)

Dr. Zhaoqing Yang is a Chief Scientist for coastal ocean modeling at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and is a Distinguished Faculty Fellow in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the University of Washington. His research covers broad areas related to coastal hydrodynamics and transport processes using advanced numerical models, with a focus on marine renewable energy resource assessment and the impacts of extreme events and anthropogenic disturbances on coastal infrastructure and ecosystems. Dr. Yang leads PNNL’s modeling effort on wave and tidal stream energy resource characterization, as well as the environmental impact assessment associated with marine energy development. His professional involvement includes serving as a member of the Journal of Renewable Energy Editorial Board, on the National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council’s Committee on Marine and Hydrokinetic Energy Assessment and on the Advisory Committee of International Conference of Estuarine and Coastal Modeling. Dr. Yang holds a Ph.D. in Physical Oceanography from the School of Marine Sciences at the College of William and Mary.   Dr. Andrea Copping is a Senior Research Scientist and Program Manager at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and is a Distinguished Faculty Fellow in the School of Marine and Environmental Affairs at the University of Washington. Dr. Copping’s research focuses on the environmental effects of the development of wave and tidal energy and of offshore wind installations, and on the role that these effects play in technology development and project initiation across the nation. Dr. Copping leads international projects under International Energy Agency agreements on the environmental effects of marine energy development (Annex IV) and of wind (WREN) that share environmental effects information, enabling researchers to benefit from progress made around the world. Prior to joining PNNL, Dr. Copping was the Associate Director of the Washington Sea Grant Program. Although trained as a blue water biological oceanographer, she has spent most of her career examining the interactions of humans and the marine environment. Her professional involvement includes serving as an Associate Editor of the Coastal Management Journal and on the Editorial Board of the International Journal of Marine Energy. Dr. Copping holds a Ph.D. in Biological Oceanography from the University of Washington.

Preface 5
Facing the Challenges of Resource Characterization and Physical System Effects of Marine Renewable Energy Development 5
Contents 11
About the Editors 13
1 Wave Energy Assessments: Quantifying the Resource and Understanding the Uncertainty 15
Introduction 15
Wave Data Sources 16
Wave Measurements 16
Numerical Wave Models 18
WAM 19
WWIII 20
SWAN 21
TOMAWAC 21
MIKE-21 SW 21
Analyzing and Quantifying the Resource 23
Wave Spectra and Characteristic Parameterizations 23
Baseline Resource Assessment 28
Higher Fidelity Resource Assessments 32
Extreme Wave Analysis 36
Quantifying Environmental Factors 38
Impact of Resource Assessment Methodology on WEC Power Production Estimates 40
Site Identification for WEC Deployments 42
Conclusions 45
References 46
2 Wave Energy Resources Along the European Atlantic Coast 51
Introduction 51
Spectral Wave Modelling 58
Overview of Models 58
WAM 58
WaveWatch III 59
SWAN 60
Model Set-up and ValidationModel Set-up and Validation 61
Scotland 61
Ireland 65
France 66
Galicia 66
Portugal 68
Wave Resource Assessment 71
Spatial Distribution 71
Seasonal and Interannual Variability 76
Summary and Discussion 79
Acknowledgements 80
References 80
3 Analyses of Wave Scattering and Absorption Produced by WEC Arrays: Physical/Numerical Experiments and Model Assessment 84
Introduction 84
WEC Array Laboratory Experiments 87
Incident Wave Conditions 87
Model WECs and WEC Arrays 89
Wave Instrumentation 90
Determination of the Relative Capture Width 91
Numerical Modeling 92
Phase-Resolved Linear Wave Theory—WAMIT 93
Phase-Averaged Linear Wave Theory—SWAN 94
Results 96
WAMIT-Data Comparisons 96
SWAN Data Comparisons 101
Discussion 103
Conclusions 107
Acknowledgements 108
References 108
4 Hydrokinetic Tidal Energy Resource Assessments Using Numerical Models 111
Introduction 111
Individual Turbine Assessments 113
Regional Feasibility Assessments 116
Project Assessments 118
Case Study 122
Summary 128
References 129
5 Tidal Energy Resource Measurements 133
Introduction 133
The Tidal Energy Resource 134
Measurements of Deterministic Tidal Resource Characteristics 136
Measurements of Stochastic Tidal Resource Characteristics 138
Annual Energy Production 140
Large-Scale Resource Assessment and the Merging of Measurements with Models 141
Using Measurements to Validate Model-Based Resource Assessments 143
Conclusions 145
References 146
Wave-Tide Interactions in Ocean Renewable Energy 149
Introduction 149
Introduction to Wave-Tide Interaction 154
Wave Effects in Tidal Energy Projects 155
Wave Climate Effects to Resource Assessment 156
Wave Considerations in the Design of Tidal Turbines 157
Simplified Methods 158
Tidal Effects in Wave Energy Projects 161
Wave Energy Assessment in the Presence of Tides 161
Tidal Effects on Wave Energy Converters 165
Dynamically Coupled Wave-Tide Modeling Systems 165
Conclusions 166
References 167
7 Use of Global Satellite Altimeter and Drifter Data for Ocean Current Resource Characterization 171
Introduction 171
Data and Method 173
Strong Ocean Currents and the Seasonal Variation of Current Speeds 174
Ocean Current Power Resource 178
Site Selection for Ocean Current Power Generation 181
Discussion and Conclusions 184
Acknowledgements 186
References 187
8 Mapping the Ocean Current Strength and Persistence in the Agulhas to Inform Marine Energy Development 190
Introduction 190
Data and Methods 193
GlobCurrent Data Set 194
Global Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model 194
Acoustic Doppler Current Profilers 195
Current Strength and Variability 196
Comparison GlobCurrent, HYCOM, ADCPs 196
Implications for Energy Production 202
Characteristics of Energetic Region 205
Current Magnitude 205
Power Density 209
Directional Analysis 210
Technical and Environmental Considerations 213
Technology Considerations 213
Geotechnical and Mooring Considerations 216
Commercial Fishing Activities 218
Shipping Routes 219
Existing Infrastructure that Can Consume the Generated Energy 219
Environmental Impact 221
Regulatory Environment 222
Conclusion About the Best Site 223
Acknowledgements 224
References 224
9 Ocean Current Energy Resource Assessment for the Gulf Stream System: The Florida Current 227
Introduction 227
Gulf Stream Characteristics 229
Resource Assessment 233
Undisturbed Flow Assessments 235
Idealized Ocean Model Assessments 237
Numerical Ocean Model Assessment 240
Summary 243
References 244
10 Marine Hydrokinetic Energy in the Gulf Stream Off North Carolina: An Assessment Using Observations and Ocean Circulation Models 247
Introduction 247
MHK Energy and Power Density 249
The Gulf Stream 252
Assessing MHK Energy and Power Density 252
ROMS Model 255
Moored ADCP Measurements 255
Additional Observations 256
HF Radar Surface Currents 256
ADCP Vessel Transects 256
MHK Energy from the Gulf Stream Along North Carolina 257
Average Currents 257
Current Speed and Power Density Time Series 259
Year-to-Year Power Variations 261
Current Directions 264
Discussion 265
Acknowledgements 266
Appendix 266
References 267
11 Effects of Tidal Stream Energy Extraction on Water Exchange and Transport Timescales 269
Introduction 269
Definition and Calculation Methods of Flushing Time 270
Tidal Prism Method 271
Numerical Simulation 271
Effects of TECs on Flows—Analytical and Numerical Approaches 272
Analytical and 1-D Models 272
2-D and 3-D Models 274
Case Studies for Assessing the Effects on Flushing Time 277
Idealized Channel Linking to a Bay 277
Tacoma Narrows in Puget Sound 279
Summary 283
References 285
12 The Impact of Marine Renewable Energy Extraction on Sediment Dynamics 289
Introduction 289
The Transport of Sediment in the Marine Environment 291
Sediment Transport Due to Tides 291
Sediment Transport Due to Waves 293
Sediment Transport Due to Combined Tides/Waves 294
Morphodynamics 295
Natural Variability 295
Impact of Marine Energy Devices on Sediment Dynamics 297
Individual Tidal Stream Devices 297
Arrays of Tidal Stream Devices 299
Wave Energy Arrays 301
Nearshore Devices 302
Offshore Devices 303
Long-Term Variability 306
Monitoring 307
Tidal Lagoons/Barrages 308
Summary and Conclusions 309
Acknowledgements 310
References 310
13 Assessing the Impacts of Marine-Hydrokinetic Energy (MHK) Device Noise on Marine Systems by Using Underwater Acoustic Models as Enabling Tools 315
Introduction 315
Background 315
Organization of Chapter 316
Evolving Trends and Challenges 316
Coastal Environments 316
Biological Noise Impacts 317
Enabling Technologies and Emerging Solutions 317
Noise Sources 318
Natural Background Noise 318
Anthropogenic Background Noise 319
MHK Device and Wind-Farm Noise 319
Tidal Turbines 320
Wave-Energy Devices 321
Wind-Farm Noise 322
Uncertainty 322
Mitigation and Monitoring 323
Mitigation Measures and Monitoring 323
Passive Acoustic Technologies 324
Underwater Acoustic Networks 324
Underwater Acoustic Modeling Techniques as Enabling Tools 325
Propagation Models 325
Noise Models 327
Summary 328
Appendix A—Abbreviations and Acronyms 329
References 330
14 Challenges to Characterization of Sound Produced by Marine Energy Converters 333
Introduction 333
Influences on Sound Generation by Marine Energy Converters 336
Identification of Marine Energy Converter Sound 337
Masking by Flow-Noise 339
Conclusions 340
Acknowledgements 341
References 341
15 Planning and Management Frameworks for Renewable Ocean Energy 343
Introduction 343
Canada 346
China 349
Ireland 351
Japan 355
New Zealand 356
Nigeria 359
Norway 360
Portugal 362
South Africa 365
Spain 366
Sweden 368
United Kingdom 370
England 372
Wales 374
Scotland 375
Northern Ireland 378
United States of America 379
Conclusions 385
Acknowledgements 388
References 388
Index 394