Nanocarbons for Electroanalysis

Editors Sabine Szunerits is Professor in Chemistry at the University Lille 1, France. Rabah Boukherroub is Director of research at the CNRS, Institute of Electronics, Microelectronics and Nanotechnology, France. Alison Downard is Professor of Chemistry at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. Jun-Jie Zhu is Professor in the School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.

List of Contributors ix

Series Preface xiii

Preface xv

1 Electroanalysis with Carbon Film-based Electrodes 1
Shunsuke Shiba, Tomoyuki Kamata, Dai Kato and Osamu Niwa

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Fabrication of Carbon Film Electrodes 2

1.3 Electrochemical Performance and Application of Carbon Film Electrodes 4

1.3.1 Pure and Oxygen Containing Groups Terminated Carbon Film Electrodes 5

1.3.2 Nitrogen Containing or Nitrogen Terminated Carbon Film Electrodes 8

1.3.3 Fluorine Terminated Carbon Film Electrode 11

1.3.4 Metal Nanoparticles Containing Carbon Film Electrode 13

References 19

2 Carbon Nanofibers for Electroanalysis 27
Tianyan You, Dong Liu and Libo Li

2.1 Introduction 27

2.2 Techniques for the Preparation of CNFs 28

2.3 CNFs Composites 30

2.3.1 NCNFs 30

2.3.2 Metal nanoparticles]loaded CNFs 32

2.4 Applications of CNFs for electroanalysis 32

2.4.1 Technologies for electroanalysis 32

2.4.2 Non]enzymatic biosensor 33

2.4.3 Enzyme]based biosensors 40

2.4.4 CNFs]based immunosensors 44

2.5. Conclusions 47

References 47

3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Neuroanalytical Chemistry 55
Cheng Yang and B. Jill Venton

3.1. Introduction 55

3.2 Carbon Nanomaterial-based Microelectrodes and Nanoelectrodes for Neurotransmitter Detection 57

3.2.1 Carbon Nanomaterial-based Electrodes Using Dip Coating/Drop Casting Methods 57

3.2.2 Direct Growth of Carbon Nanomaterials on Electrode Substrates 59

3.2.3 Carbon Nanotube Fiber Microelectrodes 61

3.2.4 Carbon Nanoelectrodes and Carbon Nanomaterial-based Electrode Array 62

3.2.5 Conclusions 64

3.3 Challenges and Future Directions 65

3.3.1 Correlation Between Electrochemical Performance and Carbon Nanomaterial Surface Properties 65

3.3.2 Carbon Nanomaterial-based Anti-fouling Strategies for in vivo Measurements of Neurotransmitters 67

3.3.3 Reusable Carbon Nanomaterial-based Electrodes 70

3.4 Conclusions 73

References 74

4 Carbon and Graphene Dots for Electrochemical Sensing 85
Ying Chen, Lingling Li and Jun]Jie Zhu

4.1 Introduction 85

4.2 CDs and GDs for Electrochemical Sensors 86

4.2.1 Substrate Materials in Electrochemical Sensing 86

4.2.1.1 Immobilization and Modification Function 86

4.2.1.2 Electrocatalysis Function 87

4.2.2 Carriers for Probe Fabrication 93

4.2.3 Signal Probes for Electrochemical Performance 95

4.2.4 Metal Ions Sensing 96

4.2.5 Small Molecule Sensing 97

4.2.6 Protein Sensing 100

4.2.7 DNA/RNA Sensing 101

4.3 Electrochemiluminescence Sensors 101

4.4 Photoelectrochemical Sensing 107

4.5 Conclusions 110

References 110

5 Electroanalytical Applications of Graphene 119
Edward P. Randviir and Craig E. Banks

5.1 Introduction 119

5.2 The Birth of Graphene 120

5.3 Types of Graphene 122

5.4 Electroanalytical Properties of Graphene 124

5.4.1 Free]standing 3D Graphene Foam 124

5.4.2 Chemical Vapour Deposition and Pristine Graphene 125

5.4.3 Graphene Screen]printed Electrodes 127

5.4.4 Solution]based Graphene 129

5.5 Future Outlook for Graphene Electroanalysis 132

References 133

6 Graphene/gold Nanoparticles for Electrochemical Sensing 139
Sabine Szunerits, Qian Wang, Alina Vasilescu, Musen Li and Rabah Boukherroub

6.1 Introduction 139

6.2 Interfacing Gold Nanoparticles with Graphene 141

6.2.1 Ex]situ Au NPs Decoration of Graphene 142

6.2.2 In]situ Au NPs Decoration of Graphene 143

6.2.3 Electrochemical Reduction 145

6.3 Electrochemical Sensors Based on Graphene/Au NPs Hybrids 146

6.3.1 Detection of Neurotransmitters: Dopamine, Serotonin 146

6.3.2 Ractopamine 151

6.3.3 Glucose 152

6.3.4 Detection of Steroids: Cholesterol, Estradiol 153

6.3.5 Detection of Antibacterial Agents 153

6.3.6 Detection of Explosives Such as 2, 4, 6]trinitrotoluene (TNT) 153

6.3.7 Detection of NADH 154

6.3.8 Detection of Hydrogen Peroxide 155

6.3.9 Heavy Metal Ions 156

6.3.10 Amino Acid and DNA Sensing 156

6.3.11 Detection of Model Protein Biomarkers 157

6.4 Conclusion 161

Acknowledgement 162

References 162

7 Recent Advances in Electrochemical Biosensors Based on Fullerene-C60 Nano-structured Platforms
Sanaz Pilehvar and Karolien De Wael 173

7.1 Introduction 173

7.1.1 Basics and History of Fullerene (C60) 174

7.1.2 Synthesis of Fullerene 175

7.1.3 Functionalization of Fullerene 175

7.2 Modification of Electrodes with Fullerenes 176

7.2.1 Fullerene (C60)-DNA Hybrid 177

7.2.1.1 Interaction of DNA with Fullerene 178

7.2.1.2 Fullerene for DNA Biosensing 179

7.2.1.3 Fullerene as an Immobilization Platform 179

7.2.2 Fullerene(C60)-Antibody Hybrid 183

7.2.3 Fullerene(C60)-Protein Hybrid 185

7.2.3.1 Enzymes 185

7.2.3.2 Redox Active Proteins 188

7.3 Conclusions and Future Prospects 190

References 191

8 Micro- and Nano-structured Diamond in Electrochemistry: Fabrication and Application 197
Fang Gao and Christoph E. Nebel

8.1 Introduction 197

8.2 Fabrication Method of Diamond Nanostructures 198

8.2.1 Reactive Ion Etching 198

8.2.2 Templated Growth 200

8.2.3 Surface Anisotropic Etching by Metal Catalyst 204

8.2.4 High Temperature Surface Etching 204

8.2.5 Selective Material Removal 206

8.2.6 sp2-Carbon Assisted Growth of Diamond Nanostructures 207

8.2.7 High Pressure High Temperature (HPHT) Methods 209

8.3 Application of Diamond Nanostructures in Electrochemistry 209

8.3.1 Biosensors Based on Nanostructured Diamond 209

8.3.2 Energy Storage Based on Nanostructured Diamond 211

8.3.3 Catalyst Based on Nanostructured Diamond 214

8.3.4 Diamond Porous Membranes for Chemical/Electrochemical Separation Processes 216

8.4 Summary and Outlook 218

Acronyms 219

References 219

9 Electroanalysis with C3N4 and SiC Nanostructures 227
Mandana Amiri

9.1 Introduction to g-C3N4 227

9.2 Synthesis of g-C3N4 229

9.3 Electrocatalytic Behavior of g-C3N4 231

9.4 Electroanalysis with g-C3N4 Nanostructures 233

9.4.1 Electrochemiluminescent Sensors 233

9.4.2 Photo-electrochemical Detection Schemes 236

9.4.3 Voltammetric Determinations 239

9.5 Introduction to SiC 241

9.6 Synthesis of SiC Nanostructures 243

9.7 Electrochemical Behavior of SiC 244

9.8 SiC Nanostructures in Electroanalysis 246

9.9 Conclusion 250

Acknowledgements 250

References 250

Index 259