Optics (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Optics 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 6
Preface to Eighth Edition 8
Preface to First Edition 8
Chapter I. The Propagation of Light 10
1. Introductory 10
2. Rectilinear. Propagation of Light 11
3. Pencils and Beams 14
4. Vergence 15
5. The Pinhole Camera 16
6. Shadows and Eclipses 17
7. The Nature of White Light 19
Chapter II. The Behaviour of Light on Reaching a New Medium 22
8. Introduction 22
9. Reflection—Regular and Diffuse 22
10. The Law of Reflection 24
11. Absorption and Transmission 25
12. Refractive Index 26
13. Refraction 28
14. The Principle of Least Time 31
15. Optical Length 33
Chapter III. Reflection at a Plane Surface 36
17. Images.—Virtual and Real 36
18. Position of Image formed by Plane Mirror 37
19. The Field of View of a Plane Mirror 39
20. Deviation Produced by a Mirror 40
21. Reflection from a Rotating Mirror 40
22. Deviation on Reflection at Two Mirrors in Succession 41
23. Multiple Images formed on Reflection at Two Mirrors 42
24. Two Parallel Plane Mirrors 44
25. Reflection as a Means of Erecting an inverted Image 45
26. The Sextant 46
Chapter IV. Refraction at a Plane Surface 50
27. Refraction by a Plane Parallel Plate 50
28. Refraction by a Series of Parallel Plates 51
29. Reversibility of Optical Path 52
30. Critical Angle and Total Reflection 52
31. Graphical Construction for Refraction 54
32. Image Formed by Plane Refracting Surface 55
33. Microscope Method of Determining Refractive Index 57
34. Introduction 58
35. Path of Light through a Prism 58
36. Total Reflection in a Prism 59
37. Minimum Deviation 61
38. Normal Incidence and Emergence 62
39. Ophthalmic Prisms 62
40. Images seen through Prisms 63
41. Reflecting Prisms 64
42. Refractometers 67
Chapter V. Curvature:Refraction at a Curved Surface 74
43. Curvature 74
44. Measurement of Curvature 75
45. Curvature of Wave Fronts 79
46. Sign Convention 80
47. Refraction at a Plane Surface (Change in Curvature of the Wave Front) 81
48. Reduced Distance and Vergence 82
49. Refraction at a Curved Surface 82
50. Young's Construction 83
51. Spherical aberration. Caustic curve 85
52. Paraxial Rays. 85
53. Refraction at a Spherical Surface (Change in Vergence) 86
54. Refraction at a Spherical Surface (Change in Ray Path) 88
55. Conjugate Foci. Principal Foci. Focal Lengths 89
56. Images of Object Points not on the Axis 91
57. Smith-Helmholtz or Lagrange's Law. Convergence Ratio 94
58. Image of a Distant Object 95
Chapter VI. The Thin Lens 99
59. Introduction 99
60. Forms of Lenses 99
61. Refraction by a Lens 101
62. Focal Power 102
63. Conjugate Foci and Principal Foci 103
64. Focal Lengths 104
65. Chromatic Aberration 105
66. Images of Extra-Axial Points 106
67. Object of Finite Size. Lateral Magnification 107
68. Newton's Relation 109
69. Image of a Distant Object 109
70. Magnification of Images in the Direction of the Axis 110
71. Prismatic Effect of a Lens 111
72. Systems of two or more Lenses—Elementary Treatment 113
73. Graphical Constructions 114
74. Effective Power of a Lens 117
75. The Measurement of Focal Length and Power 118
76. The Optical Bench 119
77. Optical Bench Methods. Positive Lenses 119
78. Optical Bench Methods. Negative Lenses 121
Chapter VII. Reflection at Curved Surfaces 127
79. Introduction 127
80. Focal power 128
81. Reflection Regarded as a Special Case of Refraction 130
82. Conjugate Foci. Principal Focus. Focal Length 131
83. Extra-axial Points. Graphical Construction. Magnification 133
84. The Lens Mirror 135
85. Measurement of Focal Power and Focal Length 136
86. Measurement of Curvature of the Surfaces of a Lens 140
87. Mirrors of Large Aperture 140
Chapter VIII. Cylindrical and Spherocylindrical Lenses 147
88. Introduction 147
89. The Cylindrical Surface 148
90. Refraction by Cylindrical Lens. Line Focus 149
91. Sphero-Cylindrical Lenses 150
92. Refraction by Sphero-Cylindrical Lens. Astigmatic Beam 151
93. Positions and Lengths of Line Foci, etc 152
94. Image of Object of Finite Size 153
95. Toric Lenses 154
Chapter IX. Lens Systems and Thick Lenses - Elementary 157
96. Introduction 157
97. Equivalent Focal Length and Power. Principal Points 157
98. Graphical Construction of Image formed by a Lens System 160
99. Expressions for Equivalent Power, Back Vertex Power, etc. Two Thin Lenses in Air 160
100. Thick Lens in Air 164
101. Position and Size of Image 165
102. The Measurement of Focal Length and Power 167
Chapter X. The Principles of Optical Instruments 175
103. The Eye 175
104. Accommodation 177
105. Emmetropia and Ametropia. Far and Near Points 178
106. The Correction of Ametropia 179
107. Visual Angle and Apparent Size 180
108. Apparent Magnification or Magnifying Power. The Magnifier or Simple Microscope 180
109. The Compound Microscope 182
110. The Telescope. Principle 183
111. Magnification or Magnifying Power 184
112. Entrance and Exit Pupils. Ramsden Circle 185
113. Graticules 186
114. Reflecting Telescopes 186
115. Eyepieces 187
116. Erecting Eyepiece. Terrestrial Telescope 189
117. The Photographic Objective 190
118. The Projection Lantern 191
Chapter XI. Photometry 196
119. Introduction 196
120. Luminous Flux and Luminous Intensity 198
121. Illumination 199
122. Luminance 203
123. Standard Sources of Light 205
124. Comparison Photometers 206
125. Photoelectric Photometers 209
126. Photometry of Screens 211
127. The Photometry of Sources, Integrating Spheres 212
128. Incandescent Lamps 214
129. Luminescent Sources 215
130. The Action of Filters 215
131. The Measurement of illumination and Luminance 216
Chapter XII. The Nature of Light 224
132. Introduction 224
133. The Dual Nature of Light 224
134. Historical Development 225
135. Wave Motion 226
136. Simple Harmonic Motion 228
137. Wave Trains and their Superposition 232
138. Wave Fronts 234
139. The Electro-Magnetic Theory 234
140. Incandescence and Characteristic Colours 236
141. The Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 237
142. Stimulated Emission and Optical Pumping 238
143. Coherence and Resonant Cavities 239
144. Gas Lasers 240
145. Pulsed Lasers 241
146. Semi-Conductor Lasers 242
147. Photometry of Lasers - Vision Hazards 243
148. Application of Lasers 244
149. The Measurement of the Velocity of Light — Historical Methods 245
150. The Measurement of the Velocity of Light - Modern Methods 247
Chapter XIII. Dispersion and Colour 250
151. Dispersion 250
152. The Production of a Pure Spectrum 250
153. The Spectrometer 252
154. Measurement of the Refractive Index with the Spectrometer 253
155. Refractometry 255
156. Wave-length, Colour and Temperature 256
157. Spectra and Spectral Analysis 257
158. Spectrophotometers 267
159. Fraunhofer Lines 268
160. Dispersive Power 269
161. The Achromatic Lens 271
162. Chromatic Difference of Magnification 274
163. The Achromatic Prism 275
164. The Direct Vision Prism — Amici Prism 276
165. The Constant Deviation Prism 277
166. Irrationality of Dispersion. Secondary Spectrum 278
167. Types of Optical Glass 280
168. Other Optical Materials 282
169. Anomalous Dispersion 282
170. The Ultra-Violet 283
171. Biological Effects and Applications of Ultra-Violet 284
172. The Infra-Red 285
173. Biological Effects and Applications of Infra-Red 286
174. Colour 287
175. Colour Mixing and Measurement 288
176. Coloured Objects 292
177. Colour Due to the Scattering of Light 294
Chapter XIV. Interference and Optical Films 299
175. Introduction 299
176. Conditions for the Interference of Light 300
177. Coherence, Incoherence and Mutual Coherence 301
178. Interference with Incoherent Sources 302
179. Interference with Coherent Sources 303
180. The Form of Interference Fringes 305
181. Multiple-Beam Interference 308
182. Interference by Partial Reflection 310
183. Thin Films 312
184. Newton's Rings and Fizeau Fringes 315
185. Interference with Thick Plates 317
186. Contour and Index Mapping 319
187. Equal-Path Interferometers 320
188. Unequal-path Interferometers 321
189. Single-Layer Anti-Reflection Coatings 324
190. Vacuum Coating Methods 327
191. Front-Reflection Mirrors 328
192. Multi-Layer Anti-Reflection Coatings 328
193. Multi-Layer Interference Filters 330
194. Optical Coatings and Interference - Pertinent Questions 331
Chapter XV. Diffraction and Holography 336
195. Introduction 336
196. Half-Period Zones — Spherical Waves 337
197. Approximate Rectilinear Propagation of Light 341
198. Simple Diffraction Effects 341
199. Half-Period Zones — Cylindrical Waves 343
200. Cornu's Spiral, Fresnel's Equations 343
201. Fresnel Diffraction Effects 345
202. Fraunhofer Diffraction 348
203. Fraunhofer Diffraction Effects - Rectangular Apertures 348
204. Fraunhofer Diffraction Effects — Circular Apertures 353
205. Limit of Resolution, Resolving Power 355
206. Diffraction and Optical Processing 359
207. Fraunhofer Diffraction Effects — Multiple Apertures 362
208. The Diffraction Grating 365
209. Grating Images and the Optical Transfer Function 369
210. Holography 372
Chapter XVI. Polarisation 378
2 1 1 . Introductory 378
212. Double Refraction 380
213. The Production of Polarised Light. Double Refraction Methods 385
214. Polarisation by Reflection and Refraction 389
215. Polarisation by Scattering 392
216. Interference of Polarised Light 392
217. Elliptically and Circularly Polarised Light 396
218. Interference with Convergent Polarised Light 396
219. Rotatory Polarisation. Optical Rotation 398
220. Magneto-Optics and Electro-Optics 401
Chapter XVII. The Effects of Limitation of Beams in Optical Systems 405
221. Introductory 405
222. Entrance and Exit Pupils 406
223. Field of View 407
224. Depth of Focus 412
225. The Telecentric Principle 414
226. The Illumination of an Image 415
227. The Nature of a Beam 417
228. Object Illuminated by Transmitted Light. Condensers 419
Chapter XVIII. Aberrations 423
229. Introduction 423
230. Forms of Aberration 424
231. Chromatic Aberration 425
232. Spherical Aberration 425
233. The Oblique Aberration 429
234. Coma 429
235. Radial or Oblique Astigmatism 431
236. Curvature of the Image or Curvature of Field 434
237. Distortion 436
238. Von Seidel's Theory 437
239. Trigonometrical Calculation of the Exact Path of a Ray Refracted at a Spherical Surface 437
Chapter XIX. Lens Systems-General 446
240. Centred System of Spherical Surfaces. Paraxial Region 446
241. Change of Vergence of Advancing Wave Front 447
242. Calculation for Paraxial Pencils through a Centred System 448
243. Cardinal Points of a Centred System 450
244. Numerical Example. Schematic Eye 450
245. Special Case of Two Surfaces 452
246. Back Vertex Power and Positions of Prinicipal Points 453
247. Conjugate Relations of Centred System 453
248. Nodal Points 455
249. Combination of Two Centred Systems 457
250. Lens Mirror or Thick Mirror 460
Appendix 466
I. Reflection Coefficients 466
II. Principal Fraunhofer Lines 466
Ill. Optical Glass Types (Chance) 467
IV. Chief Spectral Lines used in Optics (Wavelengths in nanometres) 468
V. Refractive Indices of Some Solids and Liquids 468
Answers to Exercises 469
Index 480