Temperature (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Temperature 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 9
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 6
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION 8
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 12
Note regarding References to the Proceedings of the Symposia on Temperature 13
CHAPTER 1. THE MEANING OF TEMPERATURE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THERMOMETRY 14
1-1 Temperature: some basic ideas 14
1-2 Temperature in classical thermodynamics 16
1-3 Temperature in statistical mechanics 21
1-4 Thermal equilibrium, temperature in non-equilibrium conditions, and negative temperatures 24
1-5 Values of T, K and R 26
1-6 The origins of thermometry 29
1-7 Primary and secondary thermometry 33
References 35
CHAPTER 2. THERMODYNAMIC AND PRACTICAL TEMPERATURE SCALES 37
2-1 Introduction 37
2-2 The normal hydrogen scale 39
2-3 The origins of the International Temperature Scale of 1927 41
2-4 The principles of a practical temperature scale 43
2-5 The evolution of ITS-27 and its modifications in 1948 46
2-6 The definition of the unit of thermodynamic temperature: the kelvin 49
2-7 The International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968 (IPTS-68) 50
2-8 The uniqueness of IPTS-68 at low temperatures 55
2-9 The 1976 Provisional 0.5 K to 30 K Temperature Scale. EPT-76 58
2-10 The 1958 4He and 1962 3He vapour pressure scales 61
2-11 Departures from thermodynamic temperature of IPTS-68, EPT-76 and the 1958 and 1962 helium vapour pressure scales 65
2-12 The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90) 72
References 79
CHAPTER 3. THE MEASUREMENT OF THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE 87
3-1 Introduction 87
3-2 Gas thermometry 87
3-3 Acoustic thermometry 112
3-4 Noise thermometry 127
3-5 Magnetic thermometry 137
3-6 Dielectric-constant and refractive-index gas thermometry 143
3-7 Total radiation thermometry 148
CHAPTER 4. FIXED POINTS AND COMPARISON BATHS 165
4-1 Introduction 165
4-2 Comparison baths and furnaces 166
4-3 Heat pipes 172
4-4 Boiling points of water and sulphur 177
4-5 The low temperature boiling and triple points 178
4-6 Superconducting transition points 195
4-7 The melting and freezing of metals 197
4-8 The triple point of water, 273.16 K 211
CHAPTER 5. RESISTANCE THERMOMETRY 218
5-1 The electrical resistance of metals, alloys and semi-conductors 218
5-2 The resistivity of a pure metal as a function of temperature 225
5-3 The resistivity of a semi-conductor as a function of temperature 229
5-4 The high precision platinum resistance thermometer 233
5-5 Industrial platinum resistance thermometry 248
5-6 The rhodium/0.5% iron resistance thermometer 260
5-7 The germanium resistance thermometer 265
5-8 Thermistors 272
5-9 Carbon and carbon–glass thermometers 275
5-10 Platinum–cobalt resistance thermometers 279
5-11 Effects of magnetic fields on resistance thermometers 280
5-12 Resistance measurement in thermometry 288
CHAPTER 6. THERMOCOUPLES 299
6-1 Introduction 299
6-2 Elementary theory of thermoelectricity 301
6-3 Thermocouple types 307
6-4 Extension and compensating wires 332
6-5 The calibration of thermocouples 333
6-6 Reference junctions 339
6-7 The pressure dependence of the emf of thermocouples 340
CHAPTER 7. RADIATION THERMOMETRY 345
7-1 Introduction 345
7-2 The properties of thermal radiation 347
7-3 The calculation of the emissivity of practical blackbody cavities 361
7-4 Practical blackbody cavities for the calibration of radiation thermometers 385
7-5 Tungsten ribbon lamps as reproducible sources for radiation pyrometry 390
7-6 Radiation pyrometers 404
7-7 Spectral radiation thermometry in the measurement of thermodynamic temperature 420
7-8 Industrial radiation thermometry 422
7-9 Radiation thermometry of semi-transparent media 436
CHAPTER 8. MERCURY-IN-GLASS THERMOMETRY 445
8-1 Introduction 445
8-2 The mercury-in-glass thermometer 446
8-3 Thermometric glasses 450
8-4 Secular change and temporary depression of zero 451
8-5 Thermometers for special applications 452
APPENDIXES 456
Appendix I: International Temperature Scales: dates and editions 458
Appendix II: ITS-90: Extracts from the text. Parts I, Units of Temperature 2, Principles of the ITS-90
Appendix III: IPTS-68: Extracts from the text. Parts I (Introduction) and II (Definition) (from Metrologia, 12, 7–17, 1976) 474
Appendix IV: National and international specifications for industrial platinum resistance thermometers 480
Appendix V: Thermocouple reference tables: skeleton tables for thermocouple Types B, E, J, K, R, S, T and N 483
Appendix VI: Polynomials for thermocouple reference tables These polynomials which describe the tables given in Appendix V are expressed in terms of IPTS-68 and not ITS-90, see introductory paragraph at the beginning of Appendix V. 492
INDEX 502