Oil and Gas Pipelines

R. Winston Revie retired from the CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory, Ottawa, Canada, in 2011, after 33 years as a scientist, project leader, and program manager for pipeline technology. He is a Past President of the Metallurgical Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum, a Past President of the NACE Foundation of Canada, and a Past Director of NACE International. He received the Distinguished Technical Achievement Award of NACE International in 2004 and has received Fellow honors from CIM (1999), NACE International (1999), ASM International (2003), and The Electrochemical Society (2012) among other awards for his work. He has authored or co-authored more than 100 reference papers and technical reports and was the editor of Uhlig's Corrosion Handbook, 2nd and 3rd editions (Wiley, 2000 and 2011), and he co-authored the 3rd and 4th editions of Corrosion and Corrosion Control (Wiley, 1985 and 2008).

Preface xxxi

Contributors xxxiii

Part I Design

1 Pipeline Integrity Management Systems (PIMS) 3
Ray Goodfellow and Katherine Jonsson

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Lessons Learned and the Evolution of Pipeline Integrity 4

1.3 What Is a PIMS? 4

1.4 Regulatory Requirements 5

1.5 Core Structure and PIMS Elements 6

1.6 PIMS Function Map 8

1.7 Plan: Strategic and Operational 8

1.8 Do: Execute 9

1.9 Check: Assurance and Verification 10

1.10 Act: Management Review 10

1.11 Culture 11

1.12 Summary 11

References 11

2 SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition 13
Michael VanderZee, Doug Fisher, Gail Powley, and Rumi Mohammad

2.1 Introduction 13

2.2 SCADA Computer Servers 14

2.3 SCADA Computer Workstations 14

References 26

3 Material Selection for Fracture Control 27
William Tyson

3.1 Overview of Fracture Control 27

3.2 Toughness Requirements: Initiation 28

References 34

4 Strain-Based Design of Pipelines 37
Nader Yoosef-Ghodsi

4.1 Introduction and Basic Concepts 37

4.1.1 Overview of Strain-Based Design 37

4.5 Summary 46

References 46

5 Stress-Based Design of Pipelines 49
Mavis Sika Okyere

5.1 Introduction 49

5.2 Design Pressure 49

5.13 Summary 64

References 65

6 Spiral Welded Pipes for Shallow Offshore Applications 67
Ayman Eltaher

6.1 Introduction 67

6.2 Limitations of the Technology Feasibility 68

6.3 Challenges of Offshore Applications 68

6.3.1 Design Challenges 68

6.3.2 Stress Analysis Challenges 68

6.3.3 Materials and Manufacturing Challenges 69

6.4 Typical Pipe Properties 70

6.5 Technology Qualification 70

6.6 Additional Resources 71

6.7 Summary 71

References 71

7 Residual Stress in Pipelines 73
Paul Prevéy and Douglas Hornbach

7.1 Introduction 73

7.1.1 The Nature of Residual Stresses 73

7.1.2 Sources of Residual Stresses 74

7.2 The Influence of Residual Stresses on Performance 76

7.2.1 Fatigue 77

7.2.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking 78

References 96

8 Pipeline/Soil Interaction Modeling in Support of Pipeline Engineering Design and Integrity 99
Shawn Kenny and Paul Jukes

8.1 Introduction 99

8.2 Site Characterization and Geotechnical Engineering in Relation to Pipeline System Response Analysis 101

8.2.1 Overview 101

8.2.2 Pipeline Routing 102

Acknowledgments 130

References 130

9 Human Factors 143
Lorna Harron

9.1 Introduction 143

9.2 What Is “Human Factors”? 143

9.3 Life Cycle Approach to Human Factors 143

9.9 Summary 154

References 155

Bibliography 155

Part II Manufacture, Fabrication, and Construction

10 Microstructure and Texture Development in Pipeline Steels 159
Roumen H. Petrov, John J. Jonas, Leo A.I. Kestens, and J. Malcolm Gray

10.1 Introduction 159

10.2 Short History of Pipeline Steel Development 160

10.5 Summary 182

Acknowledgments 183

References 183

11 Pipe Manufacture—Introduction 187
Gerhard Knauf and Axel Kulgemeyer

11.1 Pipe Manufacturing Background 187

11.2 Current Trends in Line Pipe Manufacturing 187

References 188

12 Pipe Manufacture—Longitudinal Submerged Arc Welded Large Diameter Pipe 189
Christoph Kalwa

12.1 Introduction 189

12.2 Manufacturing Process 189

12.3 Quality Control Procedures 191

12.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions 192

12.5 Typical Fields of Application 192

13 Pipe Manufacture—Spiral Pipe 195
Franz Martin Knoop

13.1 Manufacturing Process 195

13.2 Quality Control Procedures 198

13.3 Range of Grades and Dimensions 198

13.4 Typical Fields of Applicability 200

References 201

14 Pipe Manufacture—ERW Pipe 203
Holger Brauer and Hendrik Löbbe

14.1 Introduction 203

14.2 Manufacturing Process 203

14.3 Quality Control Procedures 204

14.3.1 Welding Line 205

14.3.2 Finishing Line 206

14.3.3 Destructive Material Testing 208

14.4 Range of Grades and Dimensions 208

14.5 Typical Fields of Applicability 208

References 209

15 Pipe Manufacture—Seamless Tube and Pipe 211
Rolf Kümmerling and Klaus Kraemer

15.1 The Rolling Process 211

15.1.1 Introduction and History 211

15.1.2 Cross Rolling Technology 212

15.1.3 Pilger Rolling 213

15.1.4 Plug Rolling 215

15.1.5 Mandrel Rolling 216

15.1.6 Forging 218

15.1.7 Size Rolling and Stretch Reducing 218

15.2 Further Processing 219

15.2.1 Heat Treatment 219

15.2.2 Quality and In-Process Checks 221

15.2.3 Finishing Lines 221

References 222

16 Major Standards for Line Pipe Manufacturing and Testing 223
Gerhard Knauf and Axel Kulgemeyer

16.1 API SPEC 5L/ISO 3183 223

16.2 CSA Z662-11: Oil and Gas Pipeline Systems 223

References 224

17 Design of Steels for Large Diameter Sour Service Pipelines 225
Nobuyuki Ishikawa

17.1 Introduction 225

17.2 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of Linepipe Steel and Evaluation Method 225

17.2.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Full-Scale Test 225

17.2.2 Standardized Laboratory Evaluation Method for HIC 227

17.2.3 Mechanisms of Hydrogen-Induced Cracking 227

17.3 Material Design of Linepipe Steel for Sour Service 228

17.3.1 Effect of Nonmetallic Inclusions 228

17.3.2 Effect of Center Segregation 229

17.3.3 Effect of Plate Manufacturing Condition 229

References 230

18 Pipeline Welding from the Perspective of Safety and Integrity 233
David Dorling and James Gianetto

18.1 Introduction 233

18.2 Construction Welding Applications 234

18.2.1 Double-Joint Welding 234

18.2.2 Mainline Welding 234

18.2.3 Tie-In and Repair Welding 236

18.3 Nondestructive Inspection and Flaw Assessment 237

18.4 Welding Procedure and Welder Qualification 239

18.4.1 Welding Codes and Standards 239

18.4.2 Welding Procedures 239

18.4.3 Welding Procedure Specification 239

18.4.4 Procedure Qualification Record 240

18.4.5 Qualification of Welders 240

18.5 Hydrogen Control in Welds and the Prevention of Hydrogen-Assisted Cracking 240

18.6 Important Considerations for Qualifying Welding Procedures to a Strain-Based Design 242

18.7 Welding on In-Service Pipelines 243

18.8 Pipeline Incidents Arising from Welding Defects and Recent Industry and Regulatory Preventative Action 245

Appendix 18.A: Abbreviations Used in This Chapter 247

Appendix 18.B: Regulations, Codes, and Standards 247

References 248

19 The Effect of Installation on Offshore Pipeline Integrity 253
Robert O’Grady

19.1 Introduction 253

19.2 Installation Methods and Pipeline Behaviour During Installation 253

19.2.1 Pipeline Installation Loading and Failure Modes 253

19.2.2 S-Lay Method 254

19.2.3 J-Lay Method 256

19.2.4 Reel-Lay Method 256

19.3 Critical Factors Governing Installation 257

19.3.1 Vessel Restrictions 257

19.3.2 Pipeline Integrity Criteria 257

19.4 Installation Analysis and Design Methodologies 259

19.4.1 Global Installation Analysis 259

19.4.2 Methodologies 259

19.5 Monitoring the Installation Process Offshore 261

19.5.1 Monitoring Process and Remedial Action 261

19.5.2 Monitoring Analysis Software 261

19.6 Implications of Deeper Water on Installation 261

19.6.1 Increased Tension and Potential for Local Buckling 261

19.6.2 Plastic Strains 262

19.6.3 Prolonged Fatigue Exposure 262

19.6.4 Design Implications 262

Reference 262

Bibliography 262

Part III Threats to Integrity and Safety

20 External Corrosion of Pipelines in Soil 267
Homero Castaneda and Omar Rosas

20.1 Introduction 267

20.2 Background 267

References 273

21 Telluric Influence on Pipelines 275
David H. Boteler and Larisa Trichtchenko

21.1 Introduction 275

21.2 Review of the Existing Knowledge on Pipeline-Telluric Interference 275

21.3 Geomagnetic Sources of Telluric Activity 276

21.4 Earth Resistivity Influence on Telluric Activity 278

21.5 Pipeline Response to Telluric Electric Fields 278

21.6 Telluric Hazard Assessment 279

21.6.1 Geomagnetic Activity 279

21.6.2 Earth Conductivity Structure 280

21.6.3 Pipeline Response 280

21.7 Mitigation/Compensation of Telluric Effects 281

21.8 Knowledge Gaps/Open Questions 283

21.9 Summary 283

Acknowledgments 285

References 285

22 Mechanical Damage in Pipelines: A Review of the Methods and Improvements in Characterization, Evaluation, and Mitigation 289
Ming Gao and Ravi Krishnamurthy

22.1 Introduction 289

22.2 Current Status of In-Line Inspection (ILI) Technologies for Mechanical Damage Characterization 290

References 322

23 Progression of Pitting Corrosion and Structural Reliability of Welded Steel Pipelines 327
Robert E. Melchers

23.1 Introduction 327

23.2 Asset Management and Prediction 328

23.3 Pitting 328

Acknowledgments 339

References 339

24 Sulfide Stress Cracking 343
Russell D. Kane

24.1 Introduction 343

24.2 What Is Sulfide Stress Cracking? 343

References 351

25 Stress Corrosion Cracking of Steel Equipment in Ethanol Service 353
Russell D. Kane

25.1 Introduction 353

25.2 Factors Affecting Susceptibility to Ethanol SCC 353

References 360

Bibliography of Additional eSCC Papers 361

26 AC Corrosion 363
Lars Vendelbo Nielsen

26.1 Introduction 363

26.2 Basic Understanding 363

26.2.1 The Spread Resistance 365

26.2.2 The Effect of AC on DC Polarization 368

26.2.3 The Vicious Circle of AC Corrosion—Mechanistic Approach 370

26.3 AC Corrosion Risk Assessment and Management 373

26.3.1 Criteria 373

26.3.2 Current Criteria 373

26.3.3 Mitigation Measures 374

26.3.4 Monitoring and Management 379

References 382

Bibliography 382

27 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion 387
Brenda J. Little and Jason S. Lee

27.1 Introduction 387

27.2 Requirements for Microbial Growth 388

27.6 Conclusions 395

Acknowledgments 395

References 395

28 Erosion–Corrosion in Oil and Gas Pipelines 399
Siamack A. Shirazi, Brenton S. McLaury, John R. Shadley, Kenneth P. Roberts, Edmund F. Rybicki, Hernan E. Rincon, Shokrollah Hassani, Faisal M. Al-Mutahar, and Gusai H. Al-Aithan

28.1 Introduction 399

28.2 Solid Particle Erosion 401

28.7 Summary and Conclusions 419

Acknowledgments 419

References 419

29 Black Powder in Gas Transmission Pipelines 423
Abdelmounam M. Sherik

29.1 Introduction 423

29.2 Internal Corrosion of Gas Transmission Pipelines 425

29.9 Summary 434

Acknowledgments 435

References 435

Part IV Protection

30 External Coatings 439
Doug Waslen

30.1 Introduction and Background 439

30.2 Coating Performance 439

Reference 446

31 Thermoplastic Liners for Oilfield Pipelines 447
Jim Mason

31.1 Introduction 447

31.2 Codes and Standards 447

References 454

32 Cathodic Protection 457
Sarah Leeds and John Leeds

32.1 Introduction 457

32.2 Historical Foundation of Cathodic Protection 457

References 482

Part V Inspection and Monitoring

33 Direct Assessment 487
John A. Beavers, Lynsay A. Bensman, and Angel R. Kowalski

33.1 Introduction 487

33.2 External Corrosion DA (ECDA) 488

References 493

34 Internal Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes 495
Daniel E. Powell

34.1 Introduction—Corrosion Monitoring Using Coupons and ER Probes 495

34.1.1 Corrosion—A Definition 496

References 513

35 In-Line Inspection (ILI) (“Intelligent Pigging”) 515
Neb I. Uzelac

35.1 Introduction 515

35.2 Place of ILI in Pipeline Integrity Management 515

References 535

Bibliography: Journals, Conferences and Other Sources with ILI Related Content 535

36 Eddy Current Testing in Pipeline Inspection 537
Konrad Reber

36.1 Standard Eddy Current Testing 537

36.1.1 Introduction 537

36.1.2 How Eddy Current Testing (ECT) Works 537

References 542

37 Unpiggable Pipelines 545
Tom Steinvoorte

37.1 Introduction 545

37.1.1 What Is an Unpiggable Pipeline? 545

References 554

Bibliography: Sources of Additional Information 555

38 In-the-Ditch Pipeline Inspection 557
Greg Zinter

38.1 Overview 557

38.2 Introduction to Nondestructive Examination of Pipelines 557

38.12 Summary 568

Acknowledgments 568

Reference 569

Bibliography 569

39 Ultrasonic Monitoring of Pipeline Wall Thickness with Autonomous, Wireless Sensor Networks 571
Frederic Cegla and Jon Allin

39.1 Introduction 571

39.2 The Physics of Ultrasonic Thickness Gauging 571

39.6 Summary 576

Acknowledgments 577

References 577

40 Flaw Assessment 579
Ted L. Anderson

40.1 Overview 579

40.1.1 Why Are Flaws Detrimental? 579

References 586

41 Integrity Management of Pipeline Facilities 587
Keith G. Leewis

41.1 Overview 587

41.2 Outline 588

41.3 Scoping a Facilities Integrity Plan 588

Part VI Maintenance, Repair, Replacement, And Abandonment

42 Pipeline Cleaning 601
Randy L. Roberts

42.1 Introduction 601

42.2 Contaminates 601

42.3 Progressive Pigging 602

42.10 Summary 607

References 607

43 Managing an Aging Pipeline Infrastructure 609
Brian N. Leis

43.1 Introduction 609

43.2 Background 609

Acknowledgments 633

References 633

44 Pipeline Repair Using Full-Encirclement Repair Sleeves 635
William A. Bruce and John Kiefner

44.1 Introduction 635

44.2 Background 635

44.3 Full-Encirclement Steel Sleeves 636

44.6 Summary and Conclusions 654

References 654

45 Pipeline Repair 657
Robert Smyth and Buddy Powers

45.1 Introduction 657

45.2 Background 657

45.3 Safety 657

References 664

46 Pipeline Oil Spill Cleanup 665
Merv Fingas

46.1 Oil Spills and Pipelines: An Overview 665

46.1.1 How Often Do Spills Occur? 665

46.1.2 Pipelines 666

References 687

47 Pipeline Abandonment 689
Alan Pentney and Dean Carnes

47.1 What Is Pipeline Abandonment? 689

47.2 Abandonment Planning 689

References 696

Part VII Risk Management

48 Risk Management of Pipelines 699
Lynne C. Kaley and Kathleen O. Powers

48.1 Overview 699

48.1.1 Risk-Based Inspection for Pipelines 699

48.1.2 Scope 700

48.1.3 Risk Analysis 700

48.1.4 The RBI Approach 702

48.1.5 Risk Reduction and Inspection Planning 703

48.5.1 Summary 724

48.5.2 Ten Criteria for Selecting the Most Appropriate Level of RBI 724

48.5.3 Justifying Costs 725

References 726

49 Offshore Pipeline Risk, Corrosion, and Integrity Management 727
Binder Singh and Ben Poblete

49.1 Introduction 727

49.2 Challenges, Lessons, and Solutions 728

49.3 Life Cycle 733

49.7 Summary: Recommendations and Future Strategies 755

Acknowledgments 755

References 755

Bibliography 756

Part VIII Case Histories 

50 Buckling of Pipelines under Repair Sleeves: A Case Study— Analysis of the Problem and Cost-Effective Solutions 761
Arnold L. Lewis ii

50.1 Introduction 761

50.1.1 Statement of the Buckle/Collapse Problem 762

50.1.2 Observations 762

50.3 Summary 767

Acknowledgment 767

References 767

51 In-Line Inspection on an Unprecedented Scale 769
Stephan Brockhaus, Hubert Lindner, Tom Steinvoorte, Holger Hennerkes, and Ljiljana Djapic-Oosterkamp

51.1 Introduction 769

51.2 Challenging Design and Operating Conditions 769

51.3 Combined Technologies for Reliable Inspection Results 769

51.7 Summary 775

References 775

52 Deepwater, High-Pressure and Multidiameter Pipelines—A Challenging In-Line Inspection Project 777
Hubert Lindner

52.1 Introduction 777

52.2 Project Requirements 777

52.7 Summary 783

References 783

Glossary

Part 1: Abbreviations 785

Part 2: Selected Terms 791

Index 793