Atmosphere, Ocean and Climate Dynamics (eBook)

Front Cover 1
An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics 4
Copyright Page 5
Preface 6
Table of Contents 8
CHAPTER I. GRAVITATIONAL EFFECTS 14
1.1 Fundamental Concepts 15
1.2 Law of Universal Gravitation 16
1.3 Newton's Laws of Motion 16
1.4 The Earth's Gravitational Field 17
1.5 The Force of Cravity 19
1.6 Geopotential 20
1.7 Satellite Orbits 21
1.8 Hydrostatic Equation 22
1.9 Distribution of Sea Level Pressure 26
1.10 Atmospheric Tides 26
List of Symbols 30
Problems 31
General References 31
CHAPTER II. PROPERTIES OF ATMOSPHERIC GASES 33
2.1 Molecular Behavior of Gases 33
2.2 Composition of Air 34
2.3 Elementary Kinetic Theory 36
2.4 Equation of State of an Ideal Gas 38
2.5 The Velocity Distribution of Molecules 41
2.7 Conservation of Energy 47
2.8 Conservation of Mass 49
2.9 First Law of Thermodynamics 49
2.10 Equipartition of Energy 51
2.11 Specific Heat 52
2.12 Entropy 54
2.13 Isentropic Processes and Potential Temperature 54
2.14 Static Stability 56
2.15 Thermodynamic Probability and Entropy 58
2.16 Second Law of Thermodynamics and Transfer Processes 63
2.17 Real Gases and Changes of Phase 70
2.18 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation 75
2.19 The Moist Atmosphere 76
2.20 Saturation Adiabatic Processes 78
2.21 Distribution of Temperature and Water Vapor 80
List of Symbols 87
Problems 88
General References 90
CHAPTER III. PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR OF CLOUD PARTICLES 92
Part I: Growth 92
3.1 Intermolecular Forces and Surface Tension 92
3.2 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over a Curved Surface 94
3.3 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure over Solutions 95
3.4 Distribution and Properties of Aerosols 97
3.5 Growth of Droplets by Condensation 101
3.6 Growth of Droplets by Accretion 103
3.7 Supercooling of Droplets 107
3.8 Ice Nuclei 108
3.9 Vapor Pressure of Ice and Water Particles 109
3.10 Growth of Ice Particles 111
3.11 Structure of Ice Crystals 113
3.12 Precipitation 115
3.13 Artificial Cloud Modification 121
Part II: Electrical Charge Generation and Its Effects 123
3.14 Elementary Principles of Electricity 123
3.15 Charge Separation in Clouds 125
3.16 Origin and Distribution of Ions 127
3.17 Conductivity 130
3.18 The Lightning Discharge 133
3.19 The Mean Electric Field 136
List of Symbols 138
Problems 139
General References 140
CHAPTER IV. SOLAR AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATION 142
Part I: Principles of Radiative Transfer 142
4.1 Definitions and Concepts 142
4.2 Absorption and Emission of Radiation 145
4.3 Theory of Black-Body Radiation 147
4.4 Characteristics of Black-Body Radiation 149
4.5 The Line Spectrum 151
Part II: Radiation outside the Atmosphere 153
4.6 The Sun 153
4.7 Determination of the Solar Constant 156
4.8 Distribution of Solar Energy Intercepted by the Earth 159
4.9 Short- and Long-Wave Radiation 160
4.10 Radiation Measurements from Satellites 161
Part III: Effects of Absorption and Emission 165
4.11 Absorption 165
4.12 The "Atmosphere" Effect 166
4.13 Transfer of Radiation between Two Parallel Surfaces 167
4.14 Transfer of Long-Wave Radiation in a Plane Stratified Atmosphere 168
4.15 Experimental Determination of Flux Emissivity 172
4.16 Divergence of Net Radiation 174
4.17 Direct Measurement of Flux Divergence 176
Part IV: Photochemical Processes 178
4.18 Dissociation of Oxygen and Its Consequences 178
4.19 Photoionization 183
4.20 Airglow 185
List of Symbols 189
Problems 190
General References 192
CHAPTER V. TRANSFER PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS 193
5.1 Energy Transfer Near the Earth's Surface 193
5.2 Heat Conduction into the Earth 195
5.3 Turbulent Transfer 195
5.4 Turbulent Transfer in the Adiabatic Atmosphere 199
5.5 Turbulent Transfer in the Diabatic Atmosphere 203
5.6 Vertical Fluxes of Heat and Water Vapor 207
5.7 Vertical Aerosol Distribution 209
5.8 Nocturnal Cooling 210
5.9 Fog Formation 212
5.10 Air Modification 216
5.11 Global Summary of Energy Transfer 221
List of Symbols 224
Problems 226
General References 227
CHAPTER VI. GEOMAGNETIC PHENOMENA 228
6.1 Magnetic Induction 229
6.2 Maxwell's Equations 233
6.3 Field of a Magnetic Dipole 235
6.4 Behavior of Plasma in Electromagnetic Fields 237
6.5 The Ceomagnetic Field 242
6.6 Dynamo Theory of Ceomagnetism 244
6.7 Ion Distribution 246
6.8 The Ionospheric Current 250
6.9 Particle Motion in the Magnetosphere 253
6.10 The Aurora 255
List of Symbols 259
Problems 260
General References 261
CHAPTER VII. ATMOSPHERIC SIGNAL PHENOMENA 262
Part I: General Properties of Waves 262
7.1 Nature of Waves 262
7.2 Phase Speed 264
7.3 Electromagnetic Waves 267
7.4 Dispersion and Group Velocity 268
Part II: Scattering of Radiation 271
7.5 The Physical Concept 271
7.6 Complex Index of Refraction 272
7.7 Radiation Emitted by an Oscillating Dipole 277
7.8 Small Particles 279
7.9 Diffraction 280
7.10 Refraction 285
Part III: Atmospheric Probing 289
7.11 Visual Range 289
7.12 Determination of Absorbing Constituents 291
7.13 Optical Measurement of Lapse Rate 292
7.14 Radar Investigation 295
7.15 Radio Investigation of the Ionosphere 301
7.16 Acoustic Refraction 304
7.17 The Sonic Anemometer-Thermometer 307
Part IV: Natural Signal Phenomena 308
7.18 Refraction of Light by Air 308
7.19 Refraction by Ice Crystals 311
7.20 Refraction by Water Drops 313
7.21 Naturally Occurring Atmospheric Radiowaves 315
7.22 Refraction of Sound Waves 317
Part V: Effects of Nuclear Explosions 319
7.23 Electromagnetic Radiation 320
7.24 The Shock Wave in Air 324
List of Symbols 328
Problems 329
General References 330
APPENDIX I: MATHEMATICAL TOPICS 332
A. Partial Differentiation 332
B. Elementary Vector Operations 333
C. Taylor Series 336
D. The Total Differential 337
E. The Exact Differential 337
F. Gauss' and Stokes' Theorems 338
G. The Potential Function 340
H. Solid Angle 341
APPENDIX II: PHYSICAL TOPICS 343
A. Units and Dimensions 343
B. Significant Figures 343
C. Electromagnetic Conversion Table 345
D. Table of Physical Constants 346
E. International Reference Atmosphere 347
Bibliography 348
Index 350