Music Perception (eBook)

Series Preface 6
Volume Preface 8
Contents 10
Contributors 12
Chapter 1: Music Perception: Current Research and Future Directions 14
1.1 Introduction 14
1.2 Overview of this Volume 14
1.3 Future Directions 17
1.3.1 Methodological Progress 18
1.3.2 Musical Complexity 19
1.3.3 Melody Perception 21
References 24
Chapter 2: The Perception of Family and Register in Musical Tones 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.1.1 Pitch, Instrument Family, and Instrument Register Within a Family 27
2.2 Pulse-Resonance Sounds and Acoustic Scale 29
2.2.1 Origin of Pulse-Resonance Sounds 29
2.2.2 Acoustic Properties of Pulse-Resonance Sounds 31
2.2.3 Terminology 33
2.2.3.1 Source 33
2.2.3.2 Noise 34
2.2.3.3 Scale 34
2.3 The Pulse-Resonance Tones of Musical Instruments 34
2.3.1 The Source of Excitation and the Acoustic Scale Variable, Ss 35
2.3.1.1 The Source of Excitation in the Human Voice 35
2.3.1.2 The Source of Excitation in the String Family 36
2.3.1.3 Excitation Mechanisms of the Woodwind and Brass Instrument Families 37
2.3.1.4 Summary of the Role of Ss in Determining Melody and Register Within a Family 38
2.3.2 The Filtering of the Excitation Pulses and the Acoustic Scale of the Filter, Sf 38
2.3.3 Constraints on the Acoustic-Scale Variables in Orchestral Instruments 40
2.4 The Auditory Representation of Pulse-Resonance Sounds and Acoustic Scale 43
2.4.1 Auditory Images 44
2.4.2 The Spectral Profile and Sf 48
2.4.3 The Time-Interval Profile and Ss 49
2.4.4 Summary of Auditory Image Construction and the Acoustic Scale Information in the Image 49
2.5 The Acoustic Properties of Pulse-Resonance Sounds and the Auditory Variables of Perception 50
2.5.1 Effect of Source Size on Pitch and Timbre 51
2.5.2 Acoustic Scale “Melodies” and the Perception of Pitch and Timbre 52
2.5.2.1 Melody 1 55
2.5.2.2 Melody 2 55
2.5.2.3 Melody 3 55
2.5.2.4 Melody 4 56
2.5.3 The Concept of Acoustic Scale and the Definitions of Pitch and Timbre 57
2.5.3.1 The “Second Dimension of Pitch” Hypothesis 57
2.5.3.2 The Scale of the Filter, Sf., as a Dimension of Timbre 58
2.5.4 The Independence of Spectral Envelope Shape 58
2.5.5 Summary 59
2.6 Conclusions 60
References 61
Chapter 3: A Theory of Tonal Hierarchies in Music 64
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 Tonal Hierarchy 65
3.2.1 Psychological Principles Underlying Tonal Hierarchies 66
3.2.2 Definitions and Distinctions 67
3.3 Empirical Research: The Basic Studies 68
3.3.1 The Probe Tone Method 68
3.3.2 Converging Evidence 70
3.3.3 Summarizing the Basic Results: Three Principles of Tonal Hierarchies 71
3.4 Contemporary Issues that Arise from These Basic Studies 72
3.4.1 Developmental Studies 73
3.4.2 Individual Differences and Neurological Case Studies 76
3.4.3 Tonal Hierarchies and Tone Distributions in Western Music 78
3.4.4 Cross-Cultural Studies of Tonal Hierarchies 79
3.4.5 Tonal Hierarchies in Nontonal Western Music 81
3.4.6 Novel Tone Sets 82
3.4.7 Tone Distributions: Frequency or Duration? 84
3.4.8 Tonal Hierarchies and Computational Models 85
3.4.9 Using Tonal Hierarchies in Key-Finding Models 87
3.4.10 Tonal Hierarchies and Musical Tension 89
3.5 Tonal Hierarchy Theory and Implications for Cognitive Science 92
References 95
Chapter 4: Music Acquisition and Effects of Musical Experience 101
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 Pitch Organization 102
4.2.1 Development of Pitch Organization: Musical Enculturation 102
4.2.2 Differences Between Adult Musicians and Nonmusicians in Musical Pitch Processing 106
4.2.3 Effects of Formal Musical Training on Children’s Perception of Pitch Structure 109
4.2.4 Summary of the Development of Musical Pitch Acquisition 110
4.3 Rhythm 111
4.3.1 Development of Metrical Perception: Enculturation 111
4.3.2 Differences Between Adult Musicians and Nonmusicians in Musical Rhythm Processing 115
4.3.3 Effects of Formal Musical Training on Children’s Processing of Rhythm 116
4.3.4 Summary of the Acquisition of Musical Rhythm 117
4.4 Musical Emotion 118
4.4.1 The Perception of Emotion in Music 119
4.4.1.1 Basic Acoustic Cues 119
4.4.1.2 Musical-System-Specific Cues 122
4.4.2 The Effects of Experience on the Perception of Emotion in Music 123
4.4.3 Summary of Development of Musical Emotion 124
4.5 The Effects of Musical Training on Other Cognitive Skills 125
4.5.1 Mathematical Abilities 125
4.5.2 Spatial–Temporal Abilities 126
4.5.3 Language Skills 127
4.5.4 General Intelligence 128
4.5.5 Memory and Attention 129
4.5.6 Conclusions About Benefits of Musical Training in Other Cognitive Domains 130
4.6 General Conclusions 131
References 131
Chapter 5: Music and Emotion 140
5.1 Introduction to the Study of Music and Emotion 140
5.2 What Are Musical Emotions? 142
5.2.1 Emotivist and Cognitivist Positions 142
5.2.2 The Structure of Emotions 145
5.2.3 Summary 148
5.3 Emotions and Musical Characteristics 148
5.3.1 Summary 151
5.4 Measuring Emotional Reponses to Music 151
5.4.1 Self-Reports 151
5.4.2 Physiological Measures 152
5.4.3 Measures of Brain Activation 153
5.4.4 Patients with Brain Damage 155
5.4.5 Summary 155
5.5 Perceived and Felt Emotions: Similarities and Differences 156
5.5.1 Summary 157
5.6 Chills 158
5.6.1 What Are Chills? 158
5.6.2 How Are Chills Elicited by Music? 159
5.6.3 Summary 160
5.7 Liking for Music 160
5.7.1 Consonance and Dissonance 161
5.7.2 Familiarity 161
5.7.3 Liking for Sad-Sounding Music 164
5.7.4 Summary 165
5.8 Conclusions and Future Directions 166
References 169
Chapter 6: Tempo and Rhythm 176
6.1 Introduction 176
6.2 Basic Concepts 176
6.2.1 Tempo 177
6.2.2 Rhythm 177
6.2.2.1 Grouping 177
6.2.2.2 Beat and Meter 178
6.3 Theoretical Overview 179
6.3.1 Interval Theories 180
6.3.2 Entrainment Theories 181
6.4 Tempo 183
6.4.1 Tempo Limits and the Concept of Preferred Tempo 183
6.4.1.1 Spontaneous Motor Tempo 184
6.4.1.2 Preferred Perceptual Tempo 185
6.4.1.3 Factors Affecting Preferred Tempo 185
6.4.2 Absolute Memory for Tempo 186
6.4.3 Tempo Discrimination 188
6.4.3.1 Weber’s Law and the Multiple-Interval Advantage 188
6.4.3.2 Locus of the Multiple-Interval Advantage 190
6.4.4 Produced Tempo 192
6.5 Rhythm 194
6.5.1 Perception of Grouping 194
6.5.2 Perception of Beat and Meter 197
6.5.2.1 Contribution of Different Types of Accents 197
6.5.2.2 Role of Tempo in Perception of Metrical Structure 199
6.5.2.3 Role of Knowledge and Experience in Perception of Metrical Structure 200
6.5.3 Models of Rhythm 200
6.6 Summary 203
References 205
Chapter 7: Neurodynamics of Music 211
7.1 Introduction 211
7.2 An Introduction to the Neurodynamics of Music 212
7.2.1 Dynamical Systems in Neuroscience and Psychology 212
7.2.2 Dynamical Systems and Canonical Models 214
7.2.3 Networks of Neural Oscillators Resonate to Sound 215
7.2.4 Some Universal Properties of Nonlinear Oscillation 217
7.2.4.1 Andronov–Hopf Bifurcation 217
7.2.4.2 Entrainment 218
7.2.4.3 Nonlinear Amplitude Responses 219
7.2.4.4 Higher-Order Resonance 219
7.2.4.5 Frequency Selectivity and Detuning 221
7.2.4.6 Connectivity and Learning 221
7.2.5 Summary 222
7.3 Cochlear Resonance, Neural Resonance, and Pitch Perception 223
7.3.1 Summary 226
7.4 Neurodynamics of Tonality 226
7.4.1 Summary 230
7.5 Resonating to Rhythm 230
7.5.1 Summary 235
7.6 Summary and Conclusions 235
References 236
Chapter 8: Memory for Melodies 242
8.1 Introductory Comments 242
8.2 Familiarity and Nameability of Melodies 244
8.2.1 Long-Term Memory 245
8.2.2 Short-Term Memory 249
8.3 Short-Term Versus Long-Term Memory 252
8.4 Tune Structure 253
8.5 Musical Experience 256
8.6 Aging 258
8.7 Conclusions and New Directions 262
References 265
Index 268