Safety of Meat and Processed Meat (eBook)

Food Microbiology and Food Safety 2
Preface 5
Contents 6
Contributors 9
Part 1: Biological Hazards in Meat and Processed Meats 14
Main Concerns of Pathogenic Microorganisms in Meat 15
Introduction 15
Salmonella 16
Campylobacter 17
Yersinia 19
Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC) 20
Listeria 21
Staphylococcus aureus 22
Clostridia 24
Control of Microbial Foodborne Pathogens in the Meat Chain 25
Occurrence of Foodborne Pathogens in the Meat Chain 25
Meat Safety at Pre-harvest Level 26
Prevention of Recycling of Pathogens in the Environment 26
Prevention of Introduction and/or Spread of Pathogens Within the Farm 27
Prevention of Ingestion of Pathogens by Animals 28
Suppression of Pathogens Within Animal Gastrointestinal Tracts 28
Enhancement of Animal Host Response 29
Meat safety at Harvest Level 29
Prevention/Reduction of Pathogen Spread During Transport and Lairaging 30
Prevention/Reduction of Global Cross-Contamination via Abattoir Environment 31
Prevention/Reduction of Carcass Contamination on the Slaughterline 31
Elimination from and/or Suppression of Pathogens on Final Carcasses 32
Prevention/Reduction of Contamination During Meat Boning/Cutting 33
Meat Safety at Post-Harvest Level 33
Further Processing of Meat 33
Meat Products at Catering-Consumer Levels 36
General Principles of Meat Safety Management 36
References 37
Fate of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Meat 42
Introduction 42
Escherichia coli O157:H7 43
Human Health Concerns with E. coli O157:H7 44
History of E. coli O157:H7 in Meat Industry 45
Sources of E. coli O157:H7 Cross-Contamination 48
Survival of E. coli O157:H7 51
Physiology of Whole and Ground Meat Products 52
Enhanced and Mechanically Tenderized Meat Concerns 53
Intervention Strategies 55
Conclusion 56
References 59
Insights into Fresh Meat Spoilage 65
Development of Spoilage Microbiota 65
Spoilage Evaluation and Prediction 71
Strategies for Spoilage Control 77
References 84
Mycotoxins in Meat and Processed Meat Products 93
Introduction 93
Aflatoxins 96
Introduction 96
Origin and Toxicological Properties 96
Synthesis 96
Toxicity 97
Regulation 97
Contamination of Meat and Meat Products 97
Metabolism sulfo-conjugated forms of AFM1, AFQ1 and AFP1 (for review Guengerich et al., 1998) 97
Residual Persistence in Meat 99
Synthesis During Meat Processing 99
Ochratoxin A 102
Introduction 102
Origin and Toxicological Properties 102
Synthesis 102
Toxicity 103
Regulation 104
Contamination of Meat and Meat Products 105
Metabolism (for review, see Ringot, Chango, Schneider, & Larondelle, 2006)
Residual Persistence 105
Synthesis During Meat Processing 105
Zearalenone 107
Introduction 107
Origin and Toxicological Properties 107
Synthesis 107
Toxicity 107
Regulation 108
Contamination of Meat and Meat Products 108
Metabolism 108
Residual Contamination of Meat 109
Synthesis During Meat Processing 109
Trichothecenes 110
Introduction 110
Origin and Toxicological Properties 110
Synthesis 110
Toxicity 112
Regulation 112
Contamination of Meat and Meat Products 113
Metabolism 113
Residual Contamination of Meat 113
Synthesis During Meat Processing 114
Fumonisins 114
Introduction 114
Origin and Toxicological Properties 114
Synthesis 114
Toxicity 115
Regulation 116
Contamination of Meat and Meat Products 116
Metabolism 116
Residual Contamination of Meat 116
Synthesis During Meat Processing 117
Other Toxins 117
Citrinin 117
Origin and Toxicity 117
Metabolism and Meat Contamination 117
Cyclopiazonic Acid 118
Origin and Toxicity 118
Metabolism and Meat Contamination 118
Conclusion 119
References 119
Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathy and Meat Safety 135
Introduction 135
The Molecular Nature of Prion Diseases 136
Epidemiology of Variant CJD and Other Human TSEs 139
Variant CJD 139
Risk Factors for Variant CJD 142
Clinical Features of vCJD and Other Human TSEs 144
Diagnosis of vCJD and Other Human TSEs 145
BSE Epidemic and Relationship to Variant CJD 146
Public Health Measures Implemented to Reduce Transmission of BSE 148
Prevention of Spread of BSE Between Animals 149
Detection of BSE in Cattle 149
The Removal of High-Risk Material from the Food Chain 149
Prevention of Transmission of BSE from Cattle to Humans 150
Treatment of Human Prion Diseases 151
Other Animal TSEs and the Risk to Humans 152
Discussion 152
References 153
Part 2: Decontamination and/or Protection Technologies for Meat Processing 157
Strategies for On-Line Decontamination of Carcasses 158
Introduction 158
Interventions Before Hide Removal 160
Cleaning of Live Animals 160
Cleaning of Stunned Animals 162
Chemical Dehairing 162
Interventions During and After Hide Removal But Before Evisceration 163
Hide Removal 163
Knife Trimming 164
Spot-Cleaning by Steam/Water Vacuuming 165
Preevisceration Decontamination 167
Interventions During and After Evisceration 168
Bung Tying and Evisceration 168
Carcass Splitting 169
Water Spray Washing 169
Hot Water Treatment 170
Decontamination with Steam 172
Spraying with Chemical Antimicrobials 173
Chlorine 173
Chlorine Dioxide 174
Organic Acids 175
Other Chemical Antimicrobials 176
Other Decontamination Processes 177
Carcass Chilling 178
Carcass Spraying Before Fabrication 179
Multiple Hurdle Approach 180
Future Trends 181
References 182
Advanced Decontamination Technologies: High Hydrostatic Pressure on Meat Products 192
Introduction 192
General Effects of HHP 195
Effect of HHP on Microorganisms 196
High Hydrostatic Treatments to Improve the Food Safety of Different Types of Meat Products 198
Raw Meats 198
Cured Meat Products 199
Cooked Meat Products 201
Fermented Meat Products 204
Combined Hurdles: Antimicrobials and High Hydrostatic Pressure 206
Final Conclusions 211
References 211
Advanced Decontamination Technologies: Irradiation 218
Introduction 218
Food Irradiation 219
Principles of Irradiation 220
Microcidal Effect of Irradiation 221
Effects of Irradiation on Meat Quality 223
Prevention of Quality Changes in Irradiated Meat 227
Toxicity and Health Concerns 229
Further Research Needed 230
References 230
Control of Thermal Meat Processing 238
Thermal Processing 238
Thermal Inactivation Studies 240
Factors Affecting Thermal Inactivation of Pathogens in Meat and Poultry Products 240
Product’s Characteristics 240
Pathogen’s Characteristics 242
Thermal Inactivation of Foodborne Pathogens in Meat and Poultry Products 243
Thermal Inactivation of Salmonella in Meat 243
Thermal Inactivation of Salmonella in Poultry 244
Thermal Inactivation of L. monocytogenes in Meat 246
Thermal Inactivation of L. monocytogenes in Poultry 248
Thermal Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in Meat 248
Thermal Inactivation of E. coli O157:H7 in Poultry 251
Control of Foodborne Pathogens in RTE Meat and Poultry Products 253
Air Impingement Oven Cooking 253
Steam or Hot-Water Pasteurization 255
Real-Time Control 257
References 258
Antimicrobials Treatment 263
Introduction 263
Bacteriocins 264
Classification of Bacteriocins 264
Mode of Action, Molecular and Biochemical Characterization of Bacteriocins 265
Applications of Bacteriocins in Foods 267
Dairy Products 268
Meat Products 268
Fishery Products 269
Fermented Vegetables 269
Factors Limiting Bacteriocins Efficiency in Foods 269
Future Considerations on Bacteriocins Applications in Foods 270
Naturally Occurring Compounds from Plants 271
Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of Essential Oils in Foods 272
Applications of EOs in Meat and Meat Products 274
Direct Application of EOs in the Product 274
Application of Essential Oils in Active Packaging 283
Chemical GRAS Compounds in Meat and Ready-to-Eat Meat Products 287
References 294
Biopreservation 305
Introduction 305
Methods of Biopreservation 306
Biopreservation by Lactic Acid Bacteria 306
Bacteriocins of Lactic Acid Bacteria 308
Mode of Action of Bacteriocins 311
Future Perspectives 315
References 316
Oxidative Changes and Their Control in Meat and Meat Products 321
Introduction 321
Chemical Reactions of Oxygen 323
Induction by Light 323
Induction by Metal Ions 324
Induction by Enzymes 327
Lipid Oxidation in Meat 327
Rancidity 328
Warmed-Over Flavor 328
Cholesterol Oxides 330
Prevention of Lipid Oxidation in Meat 333
Vitamin E Supplementation 333
Protection in Meat 335
Protection in Meat Products 338
Other Measures Against Oxidation 341
Packaging 341
Maillard Reaction Products 342
Chelating Agents 342
Nitrite/Nitrate 343
Smoking 344
Synthetic Antioxidants 344
Natural Antioxidants 344
Concluding Remarks 344
References 345
Part 3: Non-Biological Residues and Contaminants in Meat and Processed Meats 349
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Smoked Meats 350
Introduction 350
Principles of Smoking 350
Traditional Procedures of Smoking 351
Alternatives to Traditional Smoking Procedures 352
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) 352
Behavior of PAH in an Organism 352
Legislative Aspects and International Normalization of PAH in Smoked Meat and Liquid Smoke Flavor 353
Analysis of PAH 354
Sample Preparation 354
Sample Treatment of Smoked Meat 355
Sample Treatment of Liquid Smoke Flavors 356
Pre-Separation Procedures 357
Thin Layer Chromatography 357
Gas Chromatography 358
High Pressure Liquid Chromatography 359
Comparison of Gas Chromatography and High Pressure Liquid Chromatography 362
Occurrence of PAH 366
References 366
Veterinary Drugs and Growth Promoters Residues in Meat and Processed Meats 371
Introduction 371
Main Groups of Substances with Anabolic Effect and Veterinary Drugs 372
Substances with Anabolic Effect 372
Steroid Hormones and Other Substances Having Hormonal Action 372
Stilbenes 376
Antithyroid Agents 376
Glucocorticoids 376
beta-Agonists 376
Antimicrobial and Antibiotic Drugs 376
Sulfonamides 376
beta-Lactams 385
Tetracyclines 385
Aminoglycosides 385
Macrolides 385
Quinolones 387
Peptides 387
Amphenicols 387
Carbadox and Olaquindox 387
Nitrofurans 387
Other Veterinary Drugs 390
Antihelmintic Agents 390
Anticoccidials, Including Nitroimidazoles 390
Sedatives 390
Corticoids 390
Causes of Concern Due to the Presence of Residues in Meat 391
Control of Veterinary Drugs and Growth Promoters Residues in Meat 392
References 394
Priority Environmental Chemical Contaminants in Meat 397
Introduction 397
Prioritization of Chemical Contaminants in Meat 397
Factors Influencing the Exposure of Meat Animals to Chemical Contaminants 399
From Residues Monitoring Plans to Intake Assessment 407
Organochlorine Pesticides 410
Non-dioxin-Like Polychlorobiphenyls (NDL-PCBs) 413
Polychlorodibenzodioxins, Polychlorodibenzofurans and Dioxin-Like PCB (PCDDs, PCDFs and DL-PCBs) 416
Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) 420
Polyfluorinated Alkylated Substances (PFAS) 421
Conclusions 424
References 425
Part 4: Current Methodologies for the Detection of Contaminants in Meat and Processed Meats 431
Real-Time PCR Methods for Detection of Foodborne Bacterial Pathogens in Meat and Meat Products 432
Introduction 432
PCR: Principles and Applications 433
Critical Features of a PCR-Based Method 434
The International Standard Performance Characteristics 434
Sample Preparation 435
Controls 436
Quantitative Capacity 437
Real-Time PCR Methods for the Principal Foodborne Pathogens in Meat and Meat Products 438
Salmonella 438
Campylobacter spp. 442
Shiga-Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli 443
Listeria monocytogenes 444
Future Perspective 446
References 448
Detecting and Tracking Emerging Pathogenic and Spoilage Bacteria from Farm to Fork 452
Introduction 452
Emergent Pathogens 452
Emergent Spoilage Micro-organisms 453
Detecting Micro-organisms on Meat 454
Total Bacterial Counts 455
Detecting Specific Pathogens or Spoilage Micro-organisms 455
Tracking Micro-organisms 457
Tools for Tracking Bacteria 458
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis 458
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) 458
Multi-locus Sequence Typing (MLST) 459
Multi-locus Variance Analysis(MLVA) 459
Micro-arrays 460
Conclusion 460
References 461
Molecular Analysis of Pathogenic Bacteria and Their Toxins 465
Introduction 465
Non-nucleic Acid Typing Methods 466
Multi-locus Enzyme Electrophoresis-MLEE 466
Nucleic Acid Typing Methods 467
Plasmid Analysis 467
Amplification-Based Methods 469
Polymerase Chain Reaction 469
Nested PCR 470
Real-Time PCR 471
Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA 472
Repetitive Extragenic Palindromic PCR 472
Enterobacterial Repetitive Intergenic Consensus PCR 473
Polymorphic Amplified Typing Sequences 474
Variable Number Tandem Repeat-(VNTR) and Multi-locus Variable Number Tandem Repeat Analysis (MLVA) 474
Restriction Endonuclease-Based Methods 475
Pulsed Field Gel Electrophoresis 475
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism 477
Insertion Sequence RFLP 478
Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism 480
Infrequent Restriction Site PCR 481
Sequence-Based Typing Methods 482
Multi-locus Sequence Typing 482
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Analysis 483
Genome Sequencing and Comparative Genomics 484
Hybridization Techniques 485
DNA Microarrays 485
Conclusions 487
References 487
Methodologies for the Detection of BSE Risk Material in Meat and Meat Products 503
Introduction 503
Markers from the Lipid Fraction 505
Cholesterol 505
Fatty Acids (FAs, FAMEs) 506
Markers from the Protein Fraction 508
Neuron-Specific Enolase (NSE) 508
Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) 509
Other Proteins 510
Immunohistology 511
Prion Protein (PrPC, PrPSc) 511
BSE-Risk Markers from the Nucleic Acid Fraction 512
Conclusion 514
References 514
GMO Detection 519
Introduction 519
Basic Legislative Approaches to GMOs and GM Products 520
Current Approaches to GMO Analysis 523
Sampling of Food/Feed Products 524
Preparation of an Analytical Sample (Test Portion) 526
DNA Isolation 526
GMO Identification 527
GMO Quantification 528
Identification of Unapproved GMOs 528
Quality Control 530
Conclusions 531
References 531
Part 5: Risk Assessment and Regulations on Meat Safety 537
Principles of Predictive Modeling 538
Introduction 538
Primary Models 539
Growth Models 539
Survival Models 544
Secondary Models 545
Secondary Models for Growth Rate 547
Models Based on the Gamma Concept 547
Polynomial Models 548
Other Models 550
Other Secondary Models 550
Secondary Models for Lag Time 550
Secondary Models for Inactivation 552
Probability Models 552
Applications of Predictive Modeling 553
The Challenge of Modeling Microbial Dynamics in Food Under Realistic Conditions 553
Quantitative Microbiology Tools 554
Predictive Models for Quantitative Risk Assessment 555
Conclusion 556
References 557
Predictive Modeling of Pathogen Growth in Cooked Meats 562
Introduction 562
Foodborne Pathogens of Significance in Ready-to-Eat Meat and Poultry Products 565
Clostridium botulinum 565
Clostridium perfringens 568
Bacillus cereus 569
Listeria monocytogenes 570
Predictive Models to Describe Pathogen Growth in Cooked Meats 571
Primary Models 572
Secondary Models 572
Modified Ratkowsky Model 573
Dynamic Model 573
Baranyi Model-An Innovative Approach 574
Growth/No Growth Models 576
Predictive Models for Pathogens of Significance in Cooked Meats 577
C. botulinum Predictive Models for Cooked Meats 578
C. perfringens Predictive Models for Cooked Meats 580
B. cereus Predictive Models for Cooked Meats 584
L. monocytogenes Predictive Models for Cooked Meats 584
Conclusions 587
References 587
Microbiological Quantitative Risk Assessment 594
Introduction 594
Peer-Reviewed QMRAs 596
National and International QMRAs 603
Conclusions 614
References 615
Quantitative Risk Assessment of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy 618
Introduction 618
Risk Assessment of BSE 619
Quantitative Approaches for the Food Safety Risk Assessment of BSE 620
Pathway Modeling Approach 620
Epidemiological Modeling Approach 620
Examples 621
Stochastic Modeling Approach 621
Model Structure 621
Modeling Infectivity of Cattle at Slaughter 623
Input Parameters 624
Age at Infection 624
Incubation Period 624
Age at Slaughter 625
Infectivity at Clinical Stage 625
Doubling Time 626
Detection Limit of Infectivity by Test 627
Outputs 627
Simulation-Based Epidemiological Modeling Approach 629
Conclusions 630
References 630
Regulations on Meat Hygiene and Safety in the European Union 633
Introduction 633
Reasons for Revising the Regulatory Aspects in the EU 634
General Food Law 635
Legislation on Food Hygiene 635
Regulation (EC) No. 852/2004 636
Regulation (EC) No. 853/2004 637
Other Legislation as Part of the Hygiene Package 637
Council Directive 2002/99/EC 637
Directive 2004/41/EC 638
Legislation on Official Controls 638
Regulation (EC) No. 882/2004(Official Feed and Food Controls)8 638
Regulation (EC) No. 854/2004 639
Implementing Measures of the Hygiene Package 640
Implementing Measures 640
Transitional Arrangements 640
Examination of Meat for Trichinella Parasites 641
Regulation on Microbiological Criteria for Foodstuffs 642
Guidance Documents for the Legislation on Food Hygiene 643
Related Food Safety Legislation 643
Legislation on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies 643
Legislation on Animal By-Products 644
Legislation on Residues 645
Legislation on Contaminants 645
Other Legislation 646
International Aspects 646
Future Legislative Work 646
Treatment to Remove Surface Contamination 646
Risk-Based Meat Inspection 647
Report to the European Parliament and the Council 647
Implications of the New Legislation for the Official Veterinarian 647
Implications of the New Legislation for the Private Veterinarian 648
References 649
Regulations on Meat Hygiene in the USA 650
Introduction 650
Background on the US Meat Industry 650
Consumer Views on Meat Hygiene in the US 652
The Federal Meat Inspection Act of the US 653
The Regulatory Process 656
Regulatory Enforcement Actions 660
Development and Use of Performance Standards by FSIS 662
Salmonella Performance Standards 664
Zero-Tolerance Standard for E. coli O157:H7 666
Stabilization/Cooling Performance Standards 669
Zero-Tolerance Standard for Listeria monocytogenes in RTE Foods 670
L. monocytogenes at Retail Delis 672
Verification Sampling and Testing 673
Risk-Based Inspection 675
Food Safety Research on Meat Hygiene 676
Inspection Resources for Ensuring Meat Hygiene in the US 677
Science-Based vs. Politically-Based Regulations 679
Conclusions 682
References 683
Index 686