Water Environment of Cities (eBook)

Dr. Baker is a Senior Fellow in the Minnesota Water Resources Center and owner of WaterThink, LLC, a consulting firm specializing in innovative approaches to water quality management. He had been on the faculty of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Arizona State University and served as Technical Director for a national synthesis of surface water acidification at EPA’s Corvallis EPA laboratory. His research examines water in human ecosystems, at scales from households to urban regions, with the goal of developing novel approaches for reducing pollution that are more effective, cheaper and fairer than conventional approaches. He has published more than 100 technical papers, edited one book, Environmental Chemistry of Lakes and Reservoirs, and is on the editorial board of the journal Urban Ecosystems. In addition to technical articles, he frequently writes columns for the Minneapolis Star and Tribune, The Minnesota Journal, and several practitioner magazines. His is currently working on a trade book, The End of Pollution. He has served on a number of environmental science and policy synthesis projects at the national scale and in Minnesota and Arizona. Chapter authors include Robert W. Adler, Associate Dean for Academic Affairs and James I. Farr Chair and Professor at the University of Utah, S.J. Quinney College of Law; Cliff Aichinger, Administrator for the Ramsey-Washington Metro Watershed District in St. Paul; Brian Bledsoe, Associate Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Colorado State University; Derek Booth, President and Senior Geologist at Stillwater Sciences, Inc. and an Adjunct Professor of Civil Engineering and Earth & Space Sciences at the University of Washington; John Crittenden, the Richard Snell Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Arizona State University; K. William Easter, Professor in Applied Economics at the University of Minnesota and former Director of the Center for International Food and Agricultural Policy; Kristina Hill, Professor of Landscape Architecture and Urban Design at the University of Virginia; Jim Holway, Associate Director of the Global Institute of Sustainability at Arizona State University and formerly, Assistant Director of the Arizona Department of Water Resources; Ingrid E. Schneider, Professor in the Department of Forest Resources at the University of Minnesota and Director of the University of Minnesota’s Tourism Center; Peter Shanahan, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at MIT; Claire Welty, Director of the Center for Urban Environmental Research and Education and Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at University of Maryland, Baltimore County; and Paul Westerhoff, Professor and Chair of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Arizona State University.

to 1 Introduction 15
1.1 The Water Environment of Cities 15
1.2 A Brief History of the Urban Water Environment 18
1.2.1 Advent of the Industrial City 18
1.2.2 Evolution of Modern Water and Sewage Works: The London Experience 19
1.2.3 Urbanization and Water in the Eastern United States 20
1.2.4 Energy and Water Transportation 22
1.2.5 Water and Urbanization in the Arid Southwest 23
1.2.6 Flooding 24
1.3 Summary 25
1.4 Looking Forward 25
1.4.1 The Magnitude of the Problem 26
1.4.2 Cause for Hope 27
1.4.3 Cross-Cutting Themes 27
1.5 Chapter Topics 28
to 2 The Urban Water Budget 31
2.1 Basic Concepts 31
2.2 Box 2.1 Example Water Budget Calculation 33
2.2 Impacts of Urbanization on the Water Cycle 35
2.3 Effects of New Approaches to Water Management on the Water Cycle 39
2.4 Future Directions 39
to 3 Groundwater in the Urban Environment 43
3.1 Introduction to Groundwater 43
3.1.1 Groundwater Flow 45
3.1.2 Groundwater Supply 48
3.1.3 Groundwater Quality 49
3.1.4 Additional Reading 50
3.2 Groundwater in Cities 50
3.2.1 Phases in the Relationship Between a City and Its Groundwater 50
3.2.2 Cities and Groundwater Quality 56
3.2.3 Analysis of Urban Groundwater 56
3.2.4 Managing Urban Groundwater 58
to 4 Urban Infrastructure and Use of Mass Balance Models for Water and Salt 63
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Urban Water Infrastructure Components 64
4.2.1 Water Supply 64
4.2.2 Sewage Collection and Treatment 71
4.2.3 Stormwater Collection 72
4.3 Case Study of Modern Integrated Urban water Modeling 74
4.3.1 Modeling Approach 74
4.3.2 Water Quantity Mass Balance Modeling 77
4.3.3 Water Quality Modeling: Salt Mass Balance 78
4.3.4 Using Integrated Water Models for Urban Cities 80
4.4 Summary 81
to 5 New Concepts for Managing Urban Pollution 83
5.1 Introduction 83
5.1.1 Chapter Goals 83
5.2 Limitations to End-of-Pipe Pollution Control 84
5.2.1 Success at Treating Point Sources of Pollution 84
5.2.2 The Nonpoint Source Problem 86
5.3 Materials Flow Analysis for Cities 87
5.3.1 The Basics 88
5.3.2 Data Sources 91
5.3.3 System Boundaries 91
5.3.4 Scales of Analysis 91
5.3.5 Indirect Fluxes 93
5.3.6 Prior Studies 93
5.4 The Human Element 93
5.5 Adaptive Management 95
5.6 Applications 96
5.6.1 Case Study 1: Urban Lawns and P Pollution 96
5.6.2 Case Study 2: Using MFA to Devise Improved Lead Reduction Strategy 98
5.6.3 Case Study 3: Managing Road Salt with Adaptive Management 100
5.7 Summary 101
to 6 Streams and Urbanization 106
6.1 Introduction and ParadigmsHow Do Streams Work? 106
6.1.1 Channel Form 106
6.1.2 Water Discharge 109
6.1.3 Sediment Transport 110
6.1.4 Floodplains 111
6.1.5 Water Chemistry 112
6.1.6 Biota 112
6.1.7 Social Amenities of Urban Streams 112
6.2 How Development Affects Stream Processes 113
6.2.1 Hydrologic Effects 113
6.2.2 Geomorphic Effects of Urbanization 115
6.2.3 Chemical Effects 117
6.2.4 Ecological Implications 118
6.3 Management Principles 119
6.3.1 Hydrologic Alteration Is Profound Hydrologic Mitigation Is Critical
6.3.2 Hydrologic Mitigation Must Reflect both Geomorphic and Ecological Principles 123
6.3.3 Protecting Riparian Zones Provides Synergistic Benefits 123
6.3.4 Goals, Objectives, and Evaluation Are Needed for Successful Urban-Stream Enhancement 124
6.4 Technical Approaches to Urban Stream Enhancement 125
6.4.1 Hydrology and Geomorphology 125
6.4.2 Riparian-Zone Conservation and Restoration 126
6.4.3 Low Impact Development and Land-Use Planning 126
6.5 Next Steps 128
6.5.1 Rivers and Streams Are Focal Points for Urban Renewal: These Are Systems Worth Restoring 128
6.5.2 Define Realistic Goals for Urban-Stream Restoration 129
6.5.3 Climate Change and the Uncertain Coupling Between Human and Environmental Systems 130
6.5.4 Lessons from Prior Efforts, Guidelines for the Future 131
to 7 Urban Water Recreation: Experiences, Place Meanings, and Future Issues 137
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Recreation Benefits 138
7.3 Place Meanings 141
7.4 Future Considerations 142
7.5 Sidebar 1 Diversifying Population: Cuyahoga Valley National Park (Floyd and Nicholas, 2008) 143
7.5 Sidebar 2 Telling River Stories: A Program Highlighting Distinctive Urban Water-Oriented Recreational Heritage 144
7.5 Resources 149
to 8 Urban Design and Urban Water Ecosystems 153
8.1 Background: Cities, Rain and Water Systems 153
8.1.1 Strategic Context 154
8.2 Historical Questions and Examples 155
8.3 Establishing an Ecological Frame for Watershed Analysis in Urban Design 158
8.3.1 The Regulatory Frame 159
8.3.2 The Site-Based Frame 160
8.3.3 The Geography-Based Analytical Frame 161
8.4 Implications and Integration 163
8.4.1 Heuristics 164
8.4.2 Proposal for an Integrative Heuristic 165
8.4.3 The Standard Approach Versus an Integrative Approach 167
8.4.4 Strategic Implications for Science and Design 174
8.4.5 Value of Visibility/Public Awareness 175
8.5 Current Drivers of Innovation 176
8.6 Conclusions 177
8.7 Research 178
8.7.1 Implementation 180
to 9 Legal Framework for the Urban Water Environment 183
9.1 Introduction 183
9.2 Governing Legal Principles and Doctrines 183
9.2.1 Water Supply 184
9.2.2 Water Treatment and Distribution 189
9.2.3 Wastewater, Stormwater, and Drainage 191
9.2.4 Benefits of Urban Aquatic Ecosystems 198
9.3 Legal Barriers to a Sustainable Urban Water Environment 198
9.3.1 Common Law Versus Statutory Approaches 199
9.3.2 Fragmentation in Water Law 199
9.3.3 Public Versus Private Rights 202
9.3.4 The Public Trust Doctrine 202
9.3.5 Beyond the Public Trust? 203
to 10 Institutions Affecting the Urban Water Environment 206
10.1 Introduction 206
10.2 Federal Institutions and Agencies 207
10.2.1 Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Website) 207
10.2.2 Army Corps of Engineers (ACE Website) 209
10.2.3 Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Website) 210
10.2.4 Natural Resources Conservation Service (Natural Resources Conservation Service Website) 211
10.2.5 Federal Emergency Management Agency (Federal Emergency Management Agency Website) 211
10.2.6 Federal Land Management Agencies 212
10.2.7 U.S. Geological Survey (U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Website) 212
10.2.8 Council on Environmental Quality (Council on Environmental Quality Website) 213
10.2.9 Bureau of Reclamation (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Website) 213
10.2.10 Native American Tribes and the Bureau of Indian Affairs (Bureau of Indian Affairs Website) 214
10.3 State Institutions 214
10.3.1 State Water Quantity Institutions 214
10.3.2 State Water Quality and Environmental Agencies 215
10.4 Local and Regional Water Institutions 216
10.4.1 Local and Regional Water Suppliers 216
10.4.2 Local Sewerage, Water Pollution Control, Storm Water Management and Flood Control Agencies 218
10.4.3 Local Planning and Zoning Institutions 218
10.5 Institutional Fragmentation as a Barrier to a Sustainable Urban Water Environment 219
10.5.1 Example: Integrated Water Institutions in Chicago (Chicago Water Website) 221
10.5.2 Example: Integrated Water Institutions in Salt Lake City (Salt Lake Water Website) 221
10.5.3 Competing Policy Factors in Allocating Responsibility for Urban Water Quality 221
10.5.4 Addressing Issues of Political Fragmentation 222
10.5.5 Remaining Problems of Issue Fragmentation 223
10.5.6 Working Toward Solutions: Interstate, International, Watershed Management and Other Collaborative Institutions 224
to 11 Institutional Structures for Water Management in the Eastern United States 227
11.1 Introduction 227
11.2 Legal Framework for Water Management 228
11.3 The Watershed Approach 229
11.3.1 Scope 229
11.3.2 Scale 229
11.4 Water and Watershed Management Approaches 231
11.4.1 Existing Political Boundary Approaches 232
11.4.2 Watershed-Based Approaches 232
11.5 Lessons Learned 240
11.5.1 Implementation Difficulties/Barriers 240
11.5.2 Factors Influencing Success 242
to 12 Adaptive Water Quantity Management: Designing for Sustainability and Resiliency in Water Scarce Regions 245
12.1 Water Policy Challenges 245
12.1.1 Population 245
12.1.2 Natural Resources 246
12.1.3 Lifestyles and Consumption Patterns 248
12.1.4 Technology 250
12.1.5 Governance 251
12.1.6 Adaptation and Resiliency 251
12.2 Water Management: Policy Frameworks and Programs 251
12.2.1 Arizona's Approach 252
12.2.2 Adequate Water Supply Programs 254
12.2.3 Conjunctive Management -- Recharge and Recovery Programs 256
12.2.3.1 Contrasting of Arizona, California and Colorado Approaches 257
12.2.4 New Supplies and Coping with Growth and Drought 258
12.2.5 Water Demand Management Approaches -- Conservation 259
12.2.6 Decision Making and Institutional Characteristics 261
12.3 Adaptive Management: Designing for Sustainability with Resilience 261
12.3.1 Design for Adaptability 263
12.3.2 Securing Political Support 265
12.4 Meeting the Challenges of Today and Tomorrow 266
to 13 Demand Management, Privatization, Water Markets, and Efficient Water Allocation in Our Cities 269
13.1 Introduction 269
13.2 Demand Management 269
13.3 Privatization 274
13.4 Water Markets 278
13.5 Sustainability of Water Use 279
13.6 Water Quality and Incentives 280
13.7 Summary and Conclusions 282
to 14 Principles for Managing the Urban Water Environment in the 21st Century 285
14.1 Introduction 285
14.1.1 Revisiting the Urban Water Environment 285
14.1.2 Chapter Goal 286
14.2 Principle 1: Influence of Urbanization 286
14.2.1 Use Water Balances to Guide Urban Water Management 286
14.2.2 Manage Pollution at the Ecosystem Level 288
14.2.3 Practice Adaptive Management 288
14.2.4 Value Physical and Ecological Integrity 288
14.3 Principle 2: Change is Inevitable 289
14.3.1 Understand Drivers of Change 289
14.3.2 Anticipate and Manage Change 290
14.4 Principle 3: Water and People 291
14.4.1 Engage the Public Broadly 290
14.4.2 Develop a Public Vision 293
14.4.3 Visualize Change 293
14.4.4 Never Forget Sanitation 294
14.4.5 Value Aesthetic and Ecological Functions of Water 294
14.5 Principle 4: Water Management Institutions 295
14.5.1 Develop Effective Water Institutions 295
14.5.2 Develop the Right Type of Water Management Institutions 296
14.6 Principle 5: Interdisciplinary Framework 297
14.6.1 Connect the Dots 298
14.6.2 Think Across Disciplines 298
14.7 In Closing 298
to Glossary 300