POF Handbook (eBook)

Preface 5
Content 9
List of Abbreviations and Symbols 20
1. Basics of Optical Data Communication 30
1.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fibers and Waveguides 30
1.1.1 Wave and Quantum Nature of Light 30
1.1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 30
1.1.3 Refraction and Total Reflection 31
1.1.4 Waveguides and Optical Fibers 32
1.1.5 Singlemode and Multimode Waveguides 33
1.1.6 Overview of Optical Fibers 34
1.1.7 Designations of Optical Fibers 36
1.2 Digital and Analog Optical Signal Transmission 37
1.2.1 Digital Optical Signal Transmission 39
1.2.2 Amplitude, Frequency, and Phase Modulation 50
1.2.3 Modulating a Carrier Frequency 51
1.2.4 Specific Transmission Methods in Optical Communications 52
1.2.5 Modulating a Subcarrier 54
1.3 Network Architectures 55
1.3.1 Active and Passive Networks 55
1.3.2 Network Structures 56
1.3.3 Multiple Access Methods 57
2. Optical Fibers 65
2.1 Fundamentals of Optical Fibers 65
2.1.1 Refractive Index Profiles 65
2.1.2 Numerical Aperture 67
2.1.3 Ray Trajectory in Optical Fibers 68
2.1.4 Modes in Optical Fibers 70
2.1.5 Parameters for Describing Real Fibers and Waveguides 73
2.2 Index Profiles and Types of Fibers 93
2.2.1 Step Index Profile Fibers (SI) 93
2.2.2 The Step Index Fiber with Reduced NA (low-NA) 95
2.2.3 The Double-Step Index Optical Fiber (DSI) 96
2.2.4 The Multi-Core Step Index Optical Fiber (MC) 98
2.2.5 The Double Step Index Multi-Core Fiber (DSI-MC) 101
2.2.6 The Graded Index Optical Fiber (GI) 102
2.2.7 The Multi-Step Index Optical Fiber (MSI) 103
2.2.8 The Semi-Graded Index Profile Fibers (Semi-GI) 104
2.2.9 An Overview of Index Profiles 105
2.3 The Development of Polymer Optical Fibers 107
2.3.1 Looking back 107
2.3.2 Step Index Polymer Fibers 108
2.3.3 Double Step Index Profile Polymer Fibers 111
2.3.4 Multi-Core Polymer Fibers 113
2.3.5 Multi-Step Index Profile and Graded Index Profile Fibers 115
2.4 Glass Fibers for Short-Range Data Transmission 121
2.4.1 200 µm Glass Fibers with Polymer Cladding 121
2.4.2 Semi-Graded Index Glass Fibers 125
2.4.3 Glass Fiber Bundles 126
2.5 Bandwidth of Optical Fibers 131
2.5.1 Definition of Bandwidth 131
2.5.2 Experimental Determination of Bandwidth 132
2.5.3 Experimental Bandwidth Measurements 135
2.5.4 Chromatic Dispersion in Polymer Optical Fibers 161
2.5.5 Methods for Increasing Bandwidth 163
2.5.6 Bit Rates and Penalty 169
2.6 Bending Properties of Optical fibers 171
2.6.1 Bending Losses in SI-POF 172
2.6.2 Bending Losses in GI Fibers 175
2.6.3 Change of Bandwidth by Bends 175
2.6.4 Bends on PCS, Multicore Fibers and thin POF 177
2.7 Materials used for POF 183
2.7.1 PMMA 183
2.7.2 POF for Higher Temperatures 185
2.7.3 Polystyrene-Polymer Fibers 194
2.7.4 Deuterated Polymers 196
2.7.5 Fluorinated Polymers 201
2.7.6 Overview over Polymers for POF Jackets 205
2.8 Fiber and Cable Production 208
2.8.1 Production Processes for POF 208
2.8.2 Production of Graded Index Profiles 212
2.8.3 Cable Manufacturing 222
2.9 Microstructured Fibers 243
2.9.1 Kinds of Wave Guiding 243
2.9.2 Production Methods 248
2.9.3 Applications for Microstructured Fibers 253
3. Passive Components for Optical Fibers 260
3.1 Connection Technology for Optical Fibers 260
3.1.1 Connectors for Polymer Optical Fibers 261
3.1.2 Surface Preparation of POF Connectors 262
3.1.3 Overview of Connector Systems 268
3.1.4 Processing Tools for POF Connectors 280
3.1.5 Connectors for Glass Fibers 284
3.2 Basis for Calculating Connector Losses 286
3.2.1 Calculation of Connector Losses with Uniform Mode Distribution 286
3.2.2 Differences in Core Diameter 286
3.2.3 Differences in Numerical Aperture 287
3.2.4 Lateral Offset of the Fibers 288
3.2.5 Losses due to Rough Surfaces 289
3.2.6 Losses through Angles between the Fiber Axes 290
3.2.7 Losses through Fresnel Reflection 291
3.2.8 Losses through Axial Distance of the Fibers 292
3.2.9 Losses due to Different Causes 295
3.3 POF Couplers 296
3.3.1 Construction of POF Couplers 296
3.3.2 Commercial Couplers 298
3.4 Filters and Attenuators for POF 303
3.4.1 Filters 303
3.4.2 Attenuators 304
3.5 Mode Mixers and Converters 309
3.6 Optical Slip Rings and Rotary Optical Connectors 312
3.6.1 Rotary Optical Connectors 312
3.6.2 The Micro-Rotation Project 313
3.6.3 POF Slip Rings 315
3.6.4 Prism Coupler Slip Ring 317
3.6.5 The Mirror Groove Slip Ring 319
4. Active Components for Optical Systems 321
4.1 Emitters and Receivers 321
4.1.1 The Principle of Light Generation in Semiconductors 322
4.1.2 Structuring Semiconductor Components 326
4.1.3 Structures of Semiconductor Transmitters 328
4.2 Transmitting Diodes for Data Communication 333
4.2.1 Red LEDs and SLEDs 333
4.2.2 Red Laser Diodes 335
4.2.3 Blue and Green LEDs 340
4.2.4 Green Laser Diodes 346
4.2.5 Vertical Laser Diodes and RC-LED 347
4.2.6 Non Resonant Cavity LED 360
4.2.7 Pyramid LEDs 362
4.3 Wavelengths for POF Sources 363
4.4 Receivers 364
4.4.1 Efficiency and Sensitivity 365
4.4.2 Photodiode Structures 366
4.4.3 Junction Capacity and Bandwidth 369
4.4.4 Overview of Receivers 369
4.4.5 Commercial Products 370
4.4.6 Improvement in Sensitivity 372
4.5 Transceivers 373
4.5.1 Components before 2000 373
4.5.2 Fast Ethernet Transceiver 376
4.5.3 Other Systems 380
5. Planar Waveguides 384
5.1 Materials for Waveguide Structures 385
5.2 Production of Polymer Waveguides 386
5.3 Singlemode Waveguides 389
5.4 Multimode Waveguides 393
5.5 Functional Components as Waveguides 396
5.5.1 Thermo-Optical Switches 396
5.5.2 Modulators 398
5.5.3 Coupling Components 398
5.5.4 Waveguide Gratings 399
5.6 Waveguides as Interconnection Solutions 400
5.6.1 Optical Backplane Systems from DaimlerChrysler 400
5.6.2 Systems from the University of Ulm 403
5.6.3 Electro-optical PCB from the University of Siegen 404
5.6.4 IBM Research Center Zurich /ETH Zurich 405
5.6.5 Results of the NeGIT Project 407
6. System Design 411
6.1 Link Power Budgets of Optical Transmission Systems 411
6.1.1 Changes of the Transmitted Power 411
6.1.2 Sensitivity of the Receiver 412
6.1.3 Attenuation of the Fiber Link 415
6.1.4 The Link Power Budget of the ATM Forum Specification 422
6.1.5 Choice of Wavelength for POF Systems 434
6.1.6 Definition of new LED Parameters 447
6.2 Examples of Link Power Budgets 451
6.2.1 ATM Forum Specification 451
6.2.2 IEEE 1394b 452
6.2.3 D2B and MOST 453
6.2.4 ISDN over POF 455
6.2.5 Link Power Budget for Bi-Directional Transmission 455
6.3 Overview of POF Systems 458
6.3.1 Step Index Profile POF Systems at 650 nm 459
6.3.2 Systems with PMMA SI-POF at Wavelengths below 600 nm 482
6.3.3 Systems with SI-POF at Wavelengths in the Near Infrared Range 496
6.3.4 Systems with PMMA GI-POF, MSI-POF and MC-POF 503
6.3.5 Systems with Fluorinated POF 515
6.3.6 POF Multiplex 531
6.3.7 Special Systems, for Example, with Analog Signals 552
6.4 Other Optical Transmission Systems with Fibers 570
6.4.1 Data Transmission on High-Temperature POF 570
6.4.2 Multi-Parallel POF Connections 572
6.4.3 Systems with 200 µm PCS and Semi-GI PCS 574
6.5 Overview and Comparison of Multiplex Techniques 581
7. Standards 584
7.1 Standards for Polymer and Glass Fibers 585
7.1.1 Polymer Fibers 585
7.1.2 Plastic Clad Glass Fibers 587
7.1.3 Fibers in General 588
7.2 Application Standards 589
7.2.1 ATM Forum (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) 589
7.2.2 IEEE 1394b 592
7.2.3 SERCOS (SErial Realtime COmmunication System) 595
7.2.4 Profibus 596
7.2.5 INTERBUS 597
7.2.6 Industrial Ethernet over POF 598
7.2.7 D2B (Domestic Digital Bus) 601
7.2.8 MOST (Media Oriented System Transport) 603
7.2.9 IDB 1394 605
7.2.10 EN 50173 606
7.3 Standards for Measurement Techniques 610
7.3.1 The VDE / VDI Guideline 5570 611
8. Application of Polymer Optical and Glass Fibers 615
8.1 Data Transmission with POF 615
8.1.1 POF in the Automotive Field 617
8.1.2 Data Networks in Apartments and Buildings 636
8.1.3 Interconnection Systems with POF 653
8.2 POF in Lighting Technology 656
8.2.1 POF for Light Guiding 656
8.2.2 Side-Lighting Fibers 661
8.3 POF in Sensor Technology 665
8.3.1 Remote Powered Sensors 666
8.3.2 Transmission and Reflection Sensors 667
8.3.3 Sensors with Fibers as Sensitive Elements 671
8.3.4 Sensors with Surface-Modified Fibers 674
8.3.5 Sensors for Chemical Materials 680
8.3.6 Glass Fiber Sensors 684
9. Optical Measuring Methods 686
9.1 Overview 686
9.2 Measuring Power 687
9.3 Dependence on the Launch Conditions 691
9.4 Measurement of the Optical Parameters 695
9.4.1 Near Field 696
9.4.2 Far Field 700
9.4.3 Inverse Far Field 705
9.4.4 Index Profile 708
9.4.5 Attenuation 709
9.4.6 Optical Backscattering Method 725
9.4.7 Dispersion 737
9.5 Connector Measurements 740
9.6 The Reliability of POF 743
9.6.1 Environmental Influences on Polymer Optical Fibers 743
9.6.2 The Effect of Environmental Influences on Optical Transmission 745
9.7 Investigation of Reliability under Various Environmental Influences 750
9.7.1 Mechanical Stress 750
9.7.2 Stress due to Change in Climatic Conditions 768
9.7.3 Aging due to the Stress of High Temperature and Humidity 770
9.7.4 Resistance to Chemicals 777
9.8 Standards and Specifications 781
10. Simulation of Optical Waveguides 783
10.1 Modeling of Polymer Optical Fibers 783
10.1.1 Types of Fibers 785
10.1.2 Modeling Approaches 786
10.1.3 Wave Theory Description 788
10.1.4 Ray-Tracing 793
10.1.5 Mode-Dependent Attenuation 796
10.1.6 Mode Mixing 800
10.2 Examples for Simulation Results 806
10.2.1 Calculating the Bandwidth of SI Fibers 806
10.2.2 A Linear POF Propagation Model 810
10.3 Measurement and Simulation of Bandwidth of PF-GI-POF 813
10.4 Simulation of Optical Receivers and Large Area Photodiodes 817
11. POF Clubs 822
11.1 The Japanese POF Consortium 822
11.2 HSPN and PAVNET 823
11.3 The French POF Club 826
11.4 The Information Technology Society (ITG) sub committee (FG) 5.4.1 “Polymer Optical Fibers” 826
11.5 The Polymer Optical Fiber Application Center (POF-AC) at the University of Applied Sciences Nürnberg 829
11.6 Working Group of the German Association of Engineers (VDI) “Testing of Polymer Optical Fibers” 833
11.7 POF-Atlas Trade Directory 833
11.8 The POF-ALL Project 834
11.9 The Korean POF Club 838
11.10 Worldwide Overview 840
References 841
Translator 892
Index of Key Terms 893
List of Advertisers 899
Biographies 901