The Universe in X-Rays (eBook)

Preface 5
Contents 7
1 Overview 21
2 Proportional Counters 23
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Gaseous Detectors 23
2.3 Operation Principle of a Proportional Counter 24
2.4 Large Area Proportional Counters for X-Ray Astronomy 28
2.5 Gas Scintillation Proportional Counters 29
References 31
3 Scintillation Counters 33
3.1 Introduction 33
3.2 Scintillation Counters for X-Ray Astronomy 34
References 37
4 Imaging Proportional Counters 38
4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 Geometry of Multiwire Proportional Counters 38
4.3 Position Resolution of Multiwire Proportional Counters 39
4.4 Position Readout Methods 40
4.5 The ROSAT PSPC 42
4.6 Imaging Gas Scintillation Proportional Counters 43
References 45
5 Aperture Modulation Telescopes 46
5.1 Principle of Aperture Modulation 46
5.2 Various Coded-Mask Telescope Missions 54
References 56
6 Wolter Optics 57
6.1 Principle 57
6.2 Wolter-Type Telescopes 59
6.3 General Imaging Properties 61
6.4 Nesting of Mirror Shells 63
6.5 Fabrication Techniques for Wolter Telescopes 64
6.6 Missions with Wolter Telescopes 65
References 66
7 CCD Detectors 67
7.1 Introduction 67
7.2 MOS CCDs 68
7.3 Fully Depleted Back-Illuminated pnCCDs 68
7.4 New Detector Developments: Active Pixel Sensors for X-Rays 84
7.5 Conclusion 86
References 87
8 High Resolution Spectroscopy 88
8.1 Introduction 88
8.2 Transmission Gratings 88
8.3 Chandra 92
8.4 Re.ection Gratings: XMM-Newton RGS 94
8.5 Bolometers 97
References 97
9 Solar System Objects 99
9.1 Introduction 99
9.2 Solar X-Rays 100
9.3 Solar Wind 101
9.4 What do We Learn from the X-Ray Observations? 108
References 109
10 Nuclear Burning Stars 111
10.1 The Sun, Stars, and Stellar X-Ray Astronomy 111
10.2 Cool Stars On and Off the Main-Sequence 120
10.3 Very Low-Mass Stars and Brown Dwarfs 128
10.4 Premain Sequence Stars 132
10.5 Stellar Wind Sources 140
10.6 Stars with Magnetic Winds 142
References 144
11 White Dwarfs 146
11.1 Introduction 146
11.2 Discovery of X-Rays from White Dwarfs 146
11.3 ROSAT 148
11.4 X-Ray Spectroscopy with EUVE, Chandra, and XMM-Newton 150
11.5 Hydrogen-Deficient White Dwarfs 152
References 155
12 X-Ray Emission of Cataclysmic Variables and Related Objects 157
12.1 Historical Introduction 157
12.2 The Zoo of CVs 158
12.3 Accretion Geometries 159
12.4 X-Ray and EUV Emission from Nonmagnetic CVs 162
12.5 X-Rays from Intermediate Polars 163
12.6 X-Rays from Polars 166
12.7 Accretion Rates 169
12.8 Novae and Close-Binary Supersoft Sources (CBSS) 172
References 178
13 Classical Novae 181
13.1 Introduction 181
13.2 Sources of X-Rays 182
13.3 EXOSAT: A Rather Noisy Beginning 183
13.4 ROSAT: Basic Properties 184
13.5 Chandra and XMM: High Resolution and New Surprises 188
13.6 Concluding Remarks 193
References 194
14 Pulsars and Isolated Neutron Stars 195
14.1 Introduction: Historical Overview 195
14.2 Physics and Astrophysics of Isolated Neutron Stars 197
14.3 High-Energy Emission Properties of Neutron Stars 204
References 225
15 Accreting Neutron Stars 229
15.1 Introduction 229
15.2 Overview 230
15.3 High Mass X-ray Binaries: HMXB 234
15.4 Low Mass X-ray Binaries: LMXB 234
15.5 Strongly Magnetized Neutron Stars 235
15.6 Weakly Magnetized Neutron Stars 240
15.7 Summary 247
References 247
16 Black-Hole Binaries 249
16.1 Introduction 249
16.2 X-Ray Binaries 250
16.3 Black Holes Identi.ed from Mass Functions 251
16.4 X-Ray Properties 252
16.5 Quasiperiodic Oscillations 268
16.6 Ultraluminous X-Ray Sources 269
References 270
17 X-Ray Studies of Supernovae and Supernova Remnants 272
17.1 Introduction 272
17.2 Young SNRs 276
17.3 Evolved SNRs 300
17.4 Extragalactic SNRs 306
17.5 X-Ray Supernovae 308
17.6 Conclusion 317
References 317
18 The Interstellar Medium 322
18.1 Introduction 322
18.2 Observations of the Hot Interstellar Medium 325
18.3 Models of the Interstellar Medium 329
18.4 Dust Scattering Halos 335
References 340
19 The Galactic Center 343
19.1 Introduction 343
19.2 Sgr A East and its Environment 348
19.3 Sgr A* 349
19.4 X-Ray Luminous Molecular Clouds 351
References 353
20 X-Rays from Nearby Galaxies 356
20.1 Introduction 356
20.2 History of X-Ray Observations of Galaxies 356
20.3 Point-Like Emission Components 358
20.4 Hot Plasma Components 367
20.5 Future Prospects 372
References 373
21 X-Ray Flares in the Cores of Galaxies 375
21.1 Introduction: Tidal Disruption of Stars by Supermassive Black Holes 375
21.2 X-Ray Flares from Inactive Galaxies 376
21.3 Chandra and XMM-Newton Follow-Up Observations 376
21.4 Future Observations and Applications 379
References 379
22 Active Galactic Nuclei 380
22.1 General Introduction to Active Galaxies 380
22.2 Introduction to Narrow-Line Seyfert 1 Galaxies 386
22.3 The X-ray Slope - Optical Line Widths Relation 387
22.4 XMM-Newton Discoveries in the High-Energy Spectra of NLS1s 393
22.5 The Nature of the Soft X-ray Excess 395
22.6 Matter Under Strong Gravity 396
References 399
23 X-Ray Studies of Clusters of Galaxies 401
23.1 Introduction 401
23.2 Cluster Masses and Composition 404
23.3 Exploration of Cluster Structure 409
23.4 The Virgo Cluster and the Variety of Cluster X-ray Morphology 416
23.5 Cooling and Heating of the ICM 419
23.6 Heavy Element Enrichment of the Cluster ICM 422
23.7 X-Ray Cluster Surveys 427
23.8 Assessing the Cosmic Large-Scale Structure 429
23.9 Cluster Evolution 431
23.10 Testing Cosmological Models 433
23.11 Conclusion and Outlook 435
References 436
24 Gamma-Ray Bursts 441
24.1 The First 30 Years 441
24.2 Major Observational Findings 445
24.3 The Basic Scenarios for Gamma-Ray Burst Emission 452
24.4 Use of GRBs for Cosmology 456
24.5 Outlook: First Results of the Swift Mission 457
References 459
25 Cosmic X-Ray Background 462
25.1 The Early History of the X-Ray Background (XRB) 462
25.2 The ROSAT Deep Surveys 463
25.3 AGN Spectra and Fits to the XRB Spectrum 468
25.4 Deep Surveys with Chandra and XMM-Newton 469
25.5 A Multi-cone Survey AGN-1 Sample 471
25.6 The Soft X-Ray Luminosity Function and Space Density Evolution 473
25.7 X-ray Constraints on the Growth of SMBH 476
25.8 Conclusions 477
References 478
26 The Future 481
26.1 Introduction 481
26.2 Space Agency Strategic Planning 482
26.3 Spektrum–Roentgen–Gamma 483
26.4 The Next Generation Large X-ray Observatory 484
26.5 Conclusions 487
References 487
Appendix: More Information About X-Ray Missions 488