Recent Developments in Insect Neurohormones

1 Synthesis and Release Sites of Neurohormones.- 1.1. From the Original Concept of Neurosecretion to Contemporary Views.- 1.1.1. The Concept of Neurosecretion.- 1.1.2. The Blood Pathway —Neurohemal Organs.- 1.1.3. Developmental Phase of the Investigations.- 1.1.4. New Problems.- 1.1.5. The Neuroeffector Junctions.- 1.1.6. Nonconventional Neurosecretory Cells.- 1.1.7. Aminergic Neurosecretory Cells.- 1.1.8. Endorphins.- 1.1.9. Characterization of Peptidergic Neurohormones.- 1.1.10. Extensive Localization of Neuropeptides.- 1.1.11. Colocalization.- 1.1.12. Neuromodulation.- 1.1.13. Regulation of Peptidergic Neuron Activity.- 1.1.14. Conclusion.- 1.2. Classical Insect Neurosecretory Cells.- 1.2.1. General Features 1.- 1.2.2. Neurosecretory Cell Diversity.- 1.2.3. Anatomy of the Neurosecretory System.- 1.3. Neurosecretory Pathways.- 1.3.1. Neuropil Arborization of Brain Neurosecretory Cells.- 1.3.2. Pathways to the Corpora Cardiaca and Corpora Allata.- 1.3.3. Pathways to the Prothoracic Gland.- 1.3.4. Pathways in the Central Nervous System.- 1. 4. Release Sites.- 1.4.1. The Corpora Cardiaca.- 1.4.2. Perisympathetic Organs.- 1.4.3. Neurohemal Areas.- 1.4.4. Neuroeffector Junctions.- 1.4.5. Embryonic Formation of Perisympathetic Neurohemal Areas.- 1.4.6. Discussion.- 1.5. Regulation of Neurohormone Production and Release.- 1.5.1. Environmental Factors.- 1.5.2. Internal Factors.- 1.5.3. Circadian Activity—Autoregulation.- 1.5.4. Neurosecretory Cell Interrelationships.- 1.5.5. Substances Involved.- 1.5.6. Control of the Release of Neurosecretory Products.- 1.5.7. Hormonal Feedback.- 1.6. Aminergic Neurons.- 1.6.1. Methods.- 1.6.2. Occurrence in the Central Nervous System.- 1.6.3. Quantitative Determinations.- 1.6.4. Distribution in Central Nervous System.- 1.6.5. Sympathetic Nervous System.- 1.6.6. Corpora Cardiaca.- 1.6.7. Perisympathetic Organs.- 1.6.8. Serotonergic Networks.- 1.6.9. Mode of Action.- 1.6.10. Conclusion.- 1.7. Concluding Remarks.- 2 Vertebrate and Invertebrate Neuropeptides in Insects.- 2.1. Insect Neurons Immunoreactive to Vertebrate Peptide Antisera.- 2.1.1. Neurophysins—Vasopressin—Oxytocin.- 2.1.2. Opioids and Related Molecules.- 2.1.3. Gastroenteropancreatic Peptides.- 2.1.4. Miscellaneous.- 2.2. Insect Neurons Immunoreactive to Invertebrate Neurohormones.- 2.3. Insect Neurons Immunoreactive to Insect Neurohormones.- 2.3.1. Proctolin.- 2.3.2. Adipokinetic Hormone.- 2.3.3. Eclosion Hormone.- 2.3.4. Neuroparsins A and B.- 2.4. Distribution of Immunoreactive Products.- 2.4.1. Nervous and Neuroendocrine System.- 2.4.2. Midgut.- 2.5. Immunoreactive Neurons and Neurosecretory Cells.- 2.6. Cross-Reactions—Colocation of Immunoreactive Peptides.- 2.7. Concluding Remarks.- 3 Control of Prothoracic Gland Activity.- 3.1. Prothoracic Gland Innervation and Ultrastructure.- 3.1.1. Prothoracic Gland Innervation.- 3.1.2. Perisympathetic Organs.- 3.1.3. Origin Cells.- 3.1.4. Prothoracic Gland Structure—Variations.- 3.1.5. Ultrastructural Data.- 3.1.6. Ultrastructural and Immunocytochemical Data.- 3.2. Prothoracic Gland Degeneration.- 3.3. PTTH Assays.- 3.3.1. In Vivo Assays.- 3.3.2. In Vitro Assays.- 3.4. Timing of PTTH Release.- 3.4.1. Hyalophora.- 3.4.2. Manduca.- 3.4.3. Bombyx.- 3.4.4. Galleria and Ephestia.- 3.4.5. Rhodnius.- 3.4.6. Concluding Remarks.- 3.5. PTTH Production and Release Sites.- 3.5.1. Production Sites.- 3.5.2. Release Sites.- 3.6. Purification of PTTH.- 3.6.1. Bombyx PTTH.- 3.6.2. Manduca PTTH.- 3.6.3. Embryonic PTTH.- 3.6.4. EDNH versus PTTH.- 3.6.5. Interspecific Activity of PTTH.- 3.7. PTTH Action Mechanism.- 3.8. Is PG Regulated by Factors Other Than PTTH?.- 3.8.1. Ventral Nerve Cord.- 3.8.2. Nerve Connections.- 3.8.3. Ecdysone and 20-HE feedback.- 3.8.4. Juvenile Hormone Feedback.- 3.8.5. Hemolymph Stimulatory Factor.- 3.8.6. Prothoracic Gland Activation in Debrained Insects.- 3.9. Conclusion.- 4 Regulation of Corpora Allata Activity and Juvenile Hormone Titer.- 4.1. Juvenile Hormones, Their Esterases and Binding Proteins.- 4.1.1. Juvenile Hormone Molecular Structure.- 4.1.2. Juvenile Hormone Titer.- 4.1.3. Juvenile Hormone Esterases.- 4.1.4. Juvenile Hormone-Binding Proteins.- 4.1.5. Juvenile Hormone Analogs.- 4.1.6. Precocene—Azadirachtin—Antibodies.- 4.2. Juvenile Hormone Assays.- 4.2.1. Physicochemical Determination.- 4.2.2. Radioimmunoassay.- 4.2.3. Short-term Radiochemical in Vitro Assay.- 4.3. Corpora Allata Innervation and Structure.- 4.3.1. Corpora Allata Innervation.- 4.3.2. Structure and Ultrastructure.- 4.4. Neurohormonal versus Nervous Regulation.- 4.4.1. Cockroaches.- 4.4.2. Locusts and Other Orthopterans.- 4.4.3. Anisolabis and Labidura.- 4.4.4. Leptinotarsa.- 4.4.5. Moths.- 4.4.6. Bugs.- 4.5. Purification of Allatotropins.- 4.6. Recapitulation.- 4.6.1. Nervous Regulation.- 4.6.2. Allatotropins and Allatostatins.- 4.6.3. Role of the Ovary.- 4.6.4. Ecdysone and 20-HE.- 4.6.5. Juvenile Hormone.- 4.6.6. Esterase Regulation.- 4.7. Conclusions.- 5 Diapause.- 5.1. Imaginal Diapause.- 5.2. Pupal Diapause.- 5.3. Larval Diapause.- 5.4. Embryonic Diapause.- 5.5. Purification of the Embryonic Diapause Factor.- 5.6. Conclusions.- 6 Reproduction.- 6.1. Sex Determination.- 6.1.1. Lampyris.- 6.1.2. Leptinotarsa.- 6.2. Oogenesis.- 6.2.1. Oogenesis: First Steps.- 6.2.2. Ovariole Differentiation.- 6.2.3. Previtellogenesis.- 6.2.4. Vitellogenesis.- 6.2.5. Chorionization.- 6.2.6. Vitellogenesis and Vitellogenin Synthesis in the Male.- 6.2.7. Concluding Remarks.- 6.3. Spermatogenesis.- 6.3.1. Ecdysone.- 6.3.2. Macromolecular Factor.- 6.3.3. Juvenile Hormone.- 6.3.4. Neurohormones.- 6.3.5. Concluding Remarks.- 6.4. Accessory Glands.- 6.4. l. Morphogenesis of Accessory Glands and Ducts.- 6.4.2. Physiological Role of Accessory Glands.- 6.4.3. Accessory Gland Regulation.- 6.5. Mating.- 6.5.1. Cockroaches.- 6.5.2. Locusts and Crickets.- 6.5.3. Beetles.- 6.5.4. Lepidopterans.- 6.5.5. Dipterans.- 6.5.6. Bugs.- 6.5.7. Conclusion.- 6.6. Ovulation—Oviposition—Parturition.- 6.6.1. Overall Cephalic Control.- 6.6.2. Role of the Last Abdominal Ganglion.- 6.6.3. Neurohormones.- 6.6.4. Production Sites of the Neurohormones.- 6.6.5. Neurohormone Release Sites.- 6.6.6. Interspecificity of the Neurohormonal Factors.- 6.6.7. Proctolin and Other Myotropic Peptides.- 6.6.8. Biogenic Amines.- 6.6.9. Juvenile Hormone and Ecdysone.- 6.6.10. Mode of Action of the Neurohormones.- 6.7. Particular Modes of Reproduction.- 6.7.1. Social insects.- 6.7.2. Unusual Modes of Reproduction.- 6.8. Conclusion.- 7 Muscle Activity.- 7.1. Visceral Muscles.- 7.1.1. Dorsal Vessel and Associated Structures.- 7.1.2. Gut.- 7.1.3. Oviducts.- 7.1.4. Malpighian Tubules.- 7.1.5. Body Wall Muscles and Blood Pressure.- 7.2. Skeletal Muscles.- 7.2.1. Proctolin.- 7.2.2. Other Peptides.- 7.2.3. Octopamine.- 7.3. Separation and Identification of Myotropic Peptides.- 7.3.1. Early Investigations.- 7.3.2. Proctolin.- 7.3.3. MI, MII, CC1, and CC2, and Neurohormone D.- 7.3.4. Other Factors.- 7.4. Leucokinins, Leucopyrokinins, Leucomyosuppressins, and Leucosulfakinins.- 7.5. Action Mechanism of Myotropic Factors.- 7.5.1. Neurohormones.- 7.5.2. Release at Effector Level.- 7.5.3. Cyclic Nucleotides.- 7.5.4. Ca 2+.- 7.5.5. Receptors.- 7.5.6. Conclusion.- 8 Ecdysis and Tanning.- 8.1. Eclosion—Molting.- 8.1.1. Eclosion Hormone.- 8.1.2. Eclosion Hormone Assays.- 8.1.3. Origin and Release Sites of Eclosion Hormone.- 8.1.4. Regulation of Eclosion Hormone Release by Ecdysteroids.- 8.1.5. Eclosion Hormone and Muscle Degeneration.- 8.1.6. Neuron Death.- 8.1.7. Various Processes Regulated by Eclosion Hormone.- 8.1.8. Presence of Eclosion Hormone among Insects.- 8.2. Bursicon.- 8.2.1. The Sclerotization Process.- 8.2.2. Bioassays.- 8.2.3. Demonstration of Neurohormonal Control of Tanning.- 8.2.4. Stimuli Involved in Bursicon Release.- 8.2.5. Production and Release Sites of Bursicon.- 8.2.6. Timing of Bursicon Synthesis and Release.- 8.2.7. Other Processes Associated with Tanning.- 8.3. Pupariation.- 8.4. Neurohormone Identification.- 8.4.1. Possible Identity of the Active Factors.- 8.4.2. Purification.- 8.4.3. Interspecific Activity.- 8.5. Mode of Action.- 8.6. Concluding Remarks.- 9 Pigment Synthesis and Breakdown—Color Change.- 9.1. Pigment Synthesis and Breakdown.- 9.1.1. Factors Involved in Pigment Synthesis.- 9.1.2. Pigments.- 9.1.3. Locusts, Grasshoppers, and Stick Insects.- 9.1.4. Lepidopteran Larvae and Pupae.- 9.1.5. Action Mechanism of Hormones and Neurohormones in Pigmentation.- 9.1.6. Purification of MRCH.- 9.2. Pigment Migrations.- 9.2.1. Corethra.- 9.2.2. Dragonflies.- 9.2.3. Stick Insects.- 9.2.4. Interspecific Activity.- 9.2.5. Purification of the Neurohormones.- 9.2.6. Summary.- 10 Osmoregulation.- 10.1. Methods.- 10.1.1. In Vivo Methods.- 10.1.2. In Vitro Methods.- 10.2. Diuretic Hormone.- 10.2. l. Production Sites.- 10.2.2. Release Sites.- 10.2.3. Diuretic Hormone Titers.- 10.3. Biogenic Amines.- 10.4. Antidiuretic Hormone.- 10.5. Ion Metabolism.- 10.6. Juvenile Hormone and Ecdysone.- 10.7. Purification of Hormones Involved in Osmoregulation.- 10.7.1. Diuretic Hormones.- 10.7.2. Chloride Transport-Stimulating Hormone.- 10.8. Mode of Action of Hormones Regulating Osmoregulation.- 10.9. Conclusions.- 11 Metabolism.- 11.1. Lipid and Carbohydrate Metabolism.- 11.1.1. Adipokinetic and Hyperglycemic Hormones of the AKH Family.- 11.1.2. Glycogenolytic and Glucosemic Factors.- 11.1.3. Hypolipemic and Hypoglycemic Factors.- 11.1.4. Insulin- and Glucagon-like Peptides.- 11.1.5. Octopamine and Other Biogenic Amines.- 11.1.6. Diapause Hormone.- 11.1.7. Juvenile Hormone.- 11.1.8. Ecdysone.- 11.2. Protein Metabolism.- 11.2.1. Ecdysteroids, Juvenile Hormone, and Protein Metabolism.- 11.2.2. Neurohormones and Protein Metabolism.- 11.3. Proteases and Amylases.- 11.4. Respiratory Metabolism.- 11.5. Origin and Release Sites of Metabolic Hormones.- 11.5.1. Adipokinetic Hormone Origin Cells.- 11.5.2. Regulation of Adipokinetic Hormone Release.- 11.5.3. Source of Hypertrehalosemic Hormones.- 11.5.4. Control of Hypertrehalosemic Hormone Release.- 11.5.5. Origin of Octopamine, Hypolipemic, and Hypoglycemic Factors.- 11.6. Mode of Action of Metabolic Hormones.- 11.7. Breakdown of Metabolic Hormones.- 11.8. Conclusion.- 12 Miscellaneous.- 12.1. Locomotor Activity.- 12.1.1. Circadian Rhythms.- 12.1.2. Activity Levels.- 12.2. Flight.- 12.3. Endogenous Nerve Activity Stress.- 12.4. Polymorphism.- 12.4.1. Corpora Allata.- 12.4.2. Neurohormones.- Concluding Remarks.- Addendum.- A.1. Synthesis and Release Sites of Neurohormones.- A.1.1. Neuroanatomical Studies.- A.1.2. Peripheral ns Ganglia.- A.1.3. Biogenic Amines.- A.2. Vertebrate and Invertebrate Neuropeptides in Insects.- A.2.1. Vertebrate Peptides.- A.2.2. Molluscan FMRFamide.- A.2.3. Insect Peptides.- A.3. Control of Prothoracic Gland Activity.- A.3.1. Hemolymph Protein Factor—Juvenile Hormone.- A.3.2. Ecdysteroid Production Outside Prothoracic Gland.- A.3.3. Brain-Ring Gland Interrelationships.- A.4. Control of Juvenile Hormone Activity.- A.4.1. Juvenile Hormone Diversity.- A.4.2. Azadirachtin.- A.4.3. Regulation by Octopamine of CA Synthetic Activity.- A.4.4. JH Binding Proteins and JH Esterases.- A.5. Embryonic Diapause.- A.6. Reproduction.- A.6.1. Vitellogenesis Regulation in Mosquitoes.- A.6.2. Vitellogenesis Regulation in Flies.- A.6.3. Vitellogenesis Regulation in Firebrats.- A.6.4. Embryonic Ecdysteroids.- A.6.5. A New Function for Oostatic Hormone.- A.6.6.Spermatogenesis.- A.7. Muscle Activity.- A.7.1. Hyperneural Muscle.- A.7.2. Modulatory Role of Proctolin.- A.8. Pigment Synthesis and Breakdown.- A.9. Osmoregulation.- A.9.1. Identification of Active Factors.- A.9.2. Biogenic Amines.- A.10. Metabolism.- A.10.1. AKH and Lipid Synthesis.- A.10. 2. New Members of the AKH Family.- A.10.3. Other Metabolic Factors.- A.10.4. Proteolytic Enzymes.- A.10.5. Mode of Action of Metabolic Hormones.- A.11. Miscellaneous.- References.- Species Index.