Point Defects in Solids

1. Defect Creation in Semiconductors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Defect Properties.- 2.1. Introduction.- 2.2. Silicon.- 2.3. Germanium.- 2.4. Diamond.- 2.5. III-V Compounds.- 2.6. II-VI Compounds.- 2.7. Other Materials.- 3. Damage Phenomenology.- 3.1. Displacement Damage.- 3.2. Thermal Spikes.- 3.3. Ionization Phenomenology.- 3.4. Plastic Deformation.- 3.5. Heat Treatment Effects.- 4. Interactions of Particles with Semiconductors.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Photon Interactions.- 4.3. Heavy Ions and Atoms.- 4.4. Electrons.- 4.5. Neutrons.- 5. Survey of Displacement Damage Results.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Germanium.- 5.3. Silicon.- 5.4. Diamond and Graphite.- 5.5. III-V Compounds.- 5.5.1. InSb, InAs, InP.- 5.5.2. GaAs, GaSb.- 5.6. II-VI Compounds.- 5.6.1. ZnSe, ZnTe, ZnS.- 5.6.2. CdS, CdSe, CdTe.- 5.6.3. MgO, ZnO, BeO.- 6. Subthreshold and Ionization Damage.- 7. Theories of Displacement Damage Production.- 8. Summary.- References.- 2. Diffusion in Semiconductors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Atomic Theory of Diffusion.- 2.1. Diffusion Mechanisms.- 2.2. The Flux Equation and Diffusivity.- 2.2.1. The Diffusive Flux.- 2.2.2. Jump Frequency.- 2.2.3. Diffusivity and Activation Energy.- 3. Continuum Theory of Diffusion.- 3.1. Fick's Laws.- 3.2. The Diffusion Profile.- 3.3. Impurity Diffusion for a Moving Boundary.- 3.3.1. Experimental Conditions for a Moving Boundary.- 3.3.2. Diffusion into a Growing Layer.- 3.3.3. Diffusion into an Evaporating Surface.- 3.4. The Boltzmann-Matano Analysis.- 4. Diffusion in Ge and Si.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Self-Diffusion in Ge and Si.- 4.3. Diffusion of the Group III and V Impurities in Ge and Si.- 4.3.1. Low-Concentration Case.- 4.3.2. High-Concentration Case.- 4.4. Interstitial Diffusion of the Alkali Elements and Inert Gases.- 4.5. Interstitial-Substitutional Diffusion of the Transition Elements.- 4.5.1. Preliminary Considerations.- 4.5.2. Low Solubility and Slow Interstitial Diffusion.- 4.5.3. Intermediate Solubility and Rapid Interstitial Diffusion.- 4.5.4. High Solubility and Slow Interstitial Diffusion.- 4.6 Graphical Summary of the Diffusion Coefficients in Si.- 5. Diffusion in the III-V Compounds.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Ternary Considerations.- 5.3. Concentration Gradient Diffusion of Zn in GaAs.- 5.4. Interstitial-Substitutional Diffusion.- 5.4.1. The Flux Equation.- 5.4.2. The Built-in Field.- 5.4.3. The Effective Diffusion Coefficient.- 5.4.4. Interstitial-Substitutional Equilibrium.- 5.4.5. Analysis of Experimental Data.- 5.4.6. Isoconcentration Diffusion.- 5.5. Effects of Arsenic Pressure.- 5.6. Departure from Equilibrium.- 5.7. Compilation of Diffusion Coefficients in the III-V Compounds.- 6. Diffusion in the II-VI Compounds.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. Solid-Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium.- 6.2.1. Component Partial Pressures.- 6.2.2. Congruent Evaporation and Minimum Pressure.- 6.2.3. The Solidus Curve.- 6.3. Self-Diffusion.- 6.3.1. General Comments.- 6.3.2. Effective Diffusion Coefficient.- 6.3.3. Self-Diffusion in CdS.- 6.3.4. Compilation of Self-Diffusion Coefficients in the II-VI Compounds.- 7. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 3. Effects of Point Defects on Electrical and Optical Properties of Semiconductors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Carrier Concentration.- 2.1. Germanium.- 2.1.1. Energy Levels.- 2.1.2. Thermal Annealing.- 2.1.3. Radiation-Induced Annealing.- 2.2. Silicon.- 2.2.1. Energy Levels.- 2.2.2. Temperature Dependence of Defect Introduction Rates.- 2.3. Compound Semiconductors.- 3. Carrier Mobility.- 3.1. Germanium.- 3.2. Silicon.- 3.3. Other Materials.- 4. Minority Carrier Lifetime.- 4.1. Two-Level Model for Recombination.- 4.2. Recombination in Irradiated Germanium.- 4.2.1. Moderate-Resistivity n-Type Material.- 4.2.2. Low-Resistivity n-Type Material.- 4.2.3. p-Type Material.- 4.3. Silicon.- 4.3.1. Analysis for n-Type Material with Two Levels Effective at Low Excess Density.- 4.3.2. p-Type Material.- 4.3.3. Annealing Studies.- 5. Optical Absorption.- 5.1. Germanium.- 5.2. Silicon.- 5.3. III-V Compound Semiconductors.- 6. Photoconductivity.- 6.1. Germanium.- 6.2. Silicon.- 6.3. Other Materials.- 7. Luminescence.- 7.1. Recombination Luminescence in Irradiated Silicon.- 7.2. Effects of Irradiation on Luminescence in Gallium Arsenide.- 8. Conclusion.- References.- 4. Electron Paramagnetic Resonance of Point Defects in Solids, with Emphasis on Semiconductors.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Basic Concepts.- 2.1. Origin of Paramagnetism.- 2.2. Diamagnetic Solids.- 2.3. Concept of Resonance.- 2.4. Experimental Apparatus.- 3. Theory of EPR for Defects in Solids.- 3.1. Quenching of Orbital Angular Momentum.- 3.2. Hyperfine Interactions.- 3.2.1. Changes in the Spectrum.- 3.2.2. Examples.- 3.2.3. Quantitative Aspects of the hf Interaction.- 3.2.4. ENDOR.- 3.3. The g-Tensor.- 3.3.1. Changes in the Spectrum.- 3.3.2. Quantitative Treatment of the g-Tensor.- 3.3.3. The g-Shift of the Vk Center.- 3.4. Fine Structure Terms for S > 1/2.- 3.4.1. Changes in Spectrum.- 3.4.2. Origin of D.- 3.4.3. Higher Order Terms for S > 3/2.- 3.5. Orbital Angular Momentum Not Quenched.- 3.6. Summary.- 4. Additional Examples.- 4.1. Defects in Irradiated Silicon.- 4.1.1. Annealing of Interstitial Aluminum.- 4.1.2. The Oxygen-Vacancy Pair.- 4.1.3. The Phosphorus-Vacancy Pair.- 4.1.4. Multiple-Vacancy Defects.- 4.2. Transition Elements in Silicon.- 5. Auxiliary Techniques.- 5.1. Applied Uniaxial Stress.- 5.1.1. Jahn-Teller Alignment.- 5.1.2. Defect Alignment.- 5.1.3. Correlation with Optical Dichroism.- 5.1.4. Electrical Level Determination.- 5.1.5. Removing Orbital Degeneracy.- 5.1.6. Distortion of the Wave Function.- 5.2. Applied Electric Fields.- 5.3. Optical Illumination in situ.- 5.3.1. Excited States.- 5.3.2. Metastable Charge States.- 5.3.3. Optical Alignment.- 5.4. Studies of the Effect of Temperature.- 5.4.1. Annealing.- 5.4.2. Linewidth.- 5.4.3. Relaxation Times.- 5.5. Defect Production.- 5.6. Optical Detection of EPR.- References.- 5. Phonon-Defect Interaction.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Theoretical Background.- 2.1. General.- 2.2. Multiple Scattering.- 2.2.1. The Coherent Potential Approximation (CPA).- 2.2.2. Range of Validity of CPA.- 2.2.3. Summary and Conclusion.- 3. External Interactions.- 3.1. Theory.- 3.1.1. Mass-Defect and Force Constant Changes.- 3.1.2. Strain-Field Scattering.- 3.2. Experiment.- 3.2.1. Mass-Defect Scattering-Isotopes.- 3.2.2. Scattering Due to Mass and Force Constant Changes.- 3.2.3. Strain Fields.- 4. Internal Interactions.- 4.1. Introduction.- 4.2. Theoretical Background.- 4.2.1. Partial Wave Analysis.- 4.2.2. Formal Scattering Theory.- 4.2.3. Form of the Interaction.- 4.2.4. Dispersion Relations.- 4.2.5. Scattering Cross Section.- 4.3. Paramagnetic Ions.- 4.3.1. Theory.- 4.3.2. Experiment.- 4.4. "Molecular" Defects.- 4.4.1. Experimental.- 4.4.2. Comparison with Experiment.- 4.4.3. Some Other Probable Consequences.- 5. Summary and Conclusion.- References.- 6. Point Defects in Molecular Solids.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Self-Diffusion.- 2.1. Radiotracer Measurements.- 2.1.1. Tracers.- 2.1.2. Specimen Preparation.- 2.1.3. Sectioning Experiments.- 2.1.4. Penetration Profiles.- 2.1.5. Integrating Techniques.- 2.1.6. Results.- 2.2. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Measurements.- 2.3. Radical Recombination Studies.- 2.4. Summary.- 3. Experimental Determination of the Formation and Migration Parameters for Point Defects.- 3.1. Excess Specific Heat Studies.- 3.2. Thermal Expansivity Measurements.- 3.3. Compressibility Measurements.- 3.4. Summary.