Preclinical Speech Science

Thomas J. Hixon, Ph.D., CCC-SLP (1940-2009) received his Ph.D. from the University of Iowa and did postdoctoral work in physiology at Harvard University. He was Professor Emeritus of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences and Dean Emeritus of the Graduate College at the University of Arizona and had been Head of the Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Director of the National Center for Neurogenic Communication Disorders, Director of Graduate Interdisciplinary Programs, Director of the Movement Neuroscience Program, Research Integrity Officer, and Associate Vice President for Research at the same institution. Dr. Hixon was a Fellow of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association and was awarded Honors of the Association, the Council of Editor's Award, two Journal Editor's Awards from the Association for the outstanding article of the year, and a Career Teaching Award from the University of Arizona. Dr. Hixon served as Editor of the Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, Speech Section Editor of the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, and an editorial reviewer and/or Associate Editor to over a dozen other speech and voice journals. His research interests centered on normal and abnormal speech production and the biomechanics of singing. Gary Weismer, Ph.D., is Chair and Oros-Bascom Professor of Communication Sciences and Disorders (CSD) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin. He received his bachelor's and master's degrees at the Pennsylvania State University, and his doctorate from UW-Madison in 1975. Dr. Weismer's research publications concern normal speech production, and speech production and intelligibility phenomena in persons with motor speech disorders. Dr. Weismer has twice been Associate Editor for the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research (previously the Journal of Speech and Hearing Research), was Associate Editor at Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica (FPL) for seven years and in 2011 was named Editor in Chief of FPL. Dr. Weismer has won several teaching awards, including a mentoring award in the UW-Madison Honors program and several residence hall awards for outstanding teaching. Dr. Weismer is a member of the Executive Board of the International Association of Logopedics and Phoniatrics (IALP), and is a Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America. Jeannette D. Hoit, Ph.D., CCC-SLP is a Professor in the Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences at the University of Arizona and a speech-language pathologist. Dr. Hoit received her B.A. in Anthropology from University of California at Los Angeles, her M.A. in Communicative Disorders from San Diego State University, her Ph.D. in Speech and Hearing Sciences from the University of Arizona, and pursued postdoctoral study in the Harvard School of Public Health Respiratory Biology Program and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Speech Research Laboratory. Dr. Hoit's research focuses on speech physiology, with an emphasis on normal aging and development, neuromotor speech disorders, and respiratory function and dysfunction. Dr. Hoit is a past-Editor of the American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, a Fellow of the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, and past-President of the American Association of Phonetic Sciences. She has received a Distinguished Alumnus Award from San Diego State University and several teaching and mentoring awards from the University of Arizona.

1 INTRODUCTION Focus of the Book Domain of Preclinical Speech Science Levels of Observation Subsystems of Speech Production and Swallowing Applications of Data Review 2 BREATHING AND SPEECH PRODUCTION Introduction Fundamentals of Breathing Anatomical Bases of Breathing Skeletal Superstructure Breathing Apparatus and Its Subdivisions Forces and Movements of Breathing Forces of Breathing Realization of Active and Passive Forces Movements of Breathing Adjustments of the Breathing Apparatus Pulmonary Apparatus Chest Wall Pulmonary Apparatus-Chest Wall Unit Output Variables of Breathing Volume Pressure Shape Neural Control of Breathing Neural Substrates Control of Tidal Breathing Control of Special Acts of Breathing Ventilation and Gas Exchange During Tidal Breathing Breathing and Speech Production Breathing in Extended Steady Utterances Breathing in Running Speech Activities Adaptive Control of Speech Breathing Body Position and Speech Breathing Extended Steady Utterances in the Supine Body Position Running Speech Activities in the Supine Body Position Speech Breathing in Other Body Positions Ventilation, Gas Exchange, and Speech Breathing Drive to Breathe and Speech Breathing Cognitive-Linguistic Factors and Speech Breathing Conversational Interchange and Speech Breathing Body Type and Speech Breathing Development and Speech Breathing Age and Speech Breathing Sex and Speech Breathing Measurement of Breathing Volume Measurement Pressure Measurement Shape Measurement Speech Breathing Disorders Clinical Professionals and Speech Breathing Disorders Review References 3 LARYNGEAL FUNCTION AND SPEECH PRODUCTION Introduction Fundamentals of Laryngeal Function Anatomy of the Laryngeal Apparatus Skeleton Laryngeal Joints Internal Topography Forces and Movements of the Laryngeal Apparatus Forces of the Laryngeal Apparatus Movements of the Laryngeal Apparatus Adjustments of the Laryngeal Apparatus Abduction of the Vocal Folds Adduction of the Vocal Folds Changing the Length of the Vocal Folds Changing the Position and/or Configuration of the Ventricular Folds Changing the Position and/or Configuration of the Epiglottis Changing the Position of the Laryngeal Housing Control Variables of Laryngeal Function Laryngeal Opposing Pressure Laryngeal Airway Resistance Glottal Size and Configuration Stiffness of the Vocal Folds Effective Mass of the Vocal Folds Neural Substrates of Laryngeal Control Laryngeal Functions Degree of Coupling Between the Trachea and Pharynx Protection of the Pulmonary Airways Containment of the Pulmonary Air Supply Sound Generation Laryngeal Function in Speech Production Transient Utterances Sustained Utterances Turbulence Noise Production Voice Production Running Speech Activities Fundamental Frequency Sound Pressure Level Spectrum Development and Laryngeal Function in Speech Production Age and Laryngeal Function in Speech Production Sex and Laryngeal Function in Speech Production Measurement of Laryngeal Function Endoscopy Electroglottography Aeromechanical Observations Acoustic Observations Laryngeal Disorders and Speech Production Clinical Professionals and Laryngeal Disorders in Speech Production Review References 4 VELOPHARYNGEAL-NASAL FUNCTION AND SPEECH PRODUCTION Introduction Fundamentals of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function Anatomy of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus Skeletal Superstructure Pharynx Velum Nasal Cavities Outer Nose Forces and Movements of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus Forces of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus Movements of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus Adjustments of the Velopharyngeal-Nasal Apparatus Coupling Between the Oral and Nasal Cavities Coupling Between the Nasal Cavities and Atmosphere Control Variables of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function Velopharyngeal-Nasal Airway Resistance Velopharyngeal Sphincter Compression Velopharyngeal-Nasal Acoustic Impedance Neural Substrates of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Control Ventilation and Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function Nasal Valve Modulation Nasal Cycling (Side-to-Side) Nasal-Oral Switching Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function and Speech Production Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function and Sustained Utterances Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function and Running Speech Activities Gravity and Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function in Speech Production Development of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function in Speech Production Age and Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function in Speech Production Sex and Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function in Speech Production Measurement of Velopharyngeal-Nasal Function Direct Visualization X-Ray Imaging Aeromechanical Observations Acoustic Observations Velopharyngeal-Nasal Disorders and Speech Production Clinical Professionals and Velopharyngeal-Nasal Disorders in Speech Production Review References 5 PHARYNGEAL-ORAL FUNCTION AND SPEECH PRODUCTION Introduction Fundamentals of Pharyngeal-Oral Function Anatomy of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus Skeleton Temporomandibular Joints Temporomandibular Joint Movements Internal Topography Forces and Movements of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus Forces of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus Movements of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus Adjustments of the Pharyngeal-Oral Apparatus Adjustments of the Pharynx Adjustments of the Mandible Adjustments of the Tongue Adjustments of the Lips Control Variables of Pharyngeal-Oral Function Pharyngeal-Oral Lumen Size and Configuration Pharyngeal-Oral Structural Contact Pressure Pharyngeal-Oral Airway Resistance Pharyngeal-Oral Acoustic Impedance Neural Substrates of Pharyngeal-Oral Control Pharyngeal-Oral Functions Degree of Coupling Between the Oral Cavity and Atmosphere Chewing Swallowing Sound Generation and Filtering Pharyngeal-Oral Function in Speech Production The Speech Production Code Vowel-Coding Scheme Diphthong-Coding Scheme Consonant-Coding Scheme The Speech Production Stream A Primer on Theories of Speech Production Traditional Theory of Feature Spreading Articulatory Phonology or Gesture Theory Development and Pharyngeal-Oral Function in Speech Production Age and Pharyngeal-Oral Function in Speech Production Sex and Pharyngeal-Oral Function in Speech Production Measurement of Pharyngeal-Oral Function X-Ray Imaging Strain-Gauge Monitoring Articulatory Tracking X-Ray Microbeam Imaging Electromagnetic Sensing Optoelectronic Tracking Electropalatographic Monitoring Magnetic Resonance Imaging Ultrasonic Imaging Aeromechanical Observations Acoustic Observations Pharyngeal-Oral Disorders and Speech Production Clinical Professionals and Pharyngeal-Oral Disorders in Speech Production Reviews References 6 BRAIN STRUCTURES AND MECHANISMS FOR SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING Introduction The Nervous System: An Overview and Concepts Central Versus Peripheral Nervous System Anatomical Planes and Directions White Versus Gray Matter, Tracts Versus Nuclei, Nerves Versus Ganglia Gray Matter and Nuclei White Matter and Fiber Tracts Ganglia Efferent and Afferent Lateralization and Specialization of Function Cerebral Hemispheres and White Matter Cerebral Hemispheres Frontal Lobe Parietal Lobe Temporal Lobe Occipital Lobe Insula Limbic System (Limbic Lobe) Cerebral White Matter Association Tracts Striatal Tracts Commissural Tracts Descending Projection Tracts Ascending Projection Tracts Subcortical Nuclei and Cerebellum Basal Ganglia Thalamus Cerebellum Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia: New Concepts Brainstem and Cranial Nerves Surface Features of the Brainstem: Ventral View Ventral Surface of Midbrain Ventral Surface of Pons Ventral Surface of Medulla Surface Features of the Brainstem: D orsal View Dorsal Surface of Midbrain Dorsal Surface of Pons Dorsal Surface of Medulla Cranial Nerves and Associated Brainstem Nuclei Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) Cranial Nerve II (Optic) Cranial Nerve III (Oculomotor) Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) Cranial Nerve VIII (Auditory-Vestibular Nerve) Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) Cranial Nerve XI (Spinal Accessory Nerve) Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) Cortical Innervation Patterns Why These Innervation Patterns Matter The Cranial Nerve Exam and Speech Production Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves Spinal Cord Spinal Nerves Nervous System Cells Glial Cells Neurons Cell Body (Soma) Axon and Terminal Button Synapse Resting Potential, Action Potential, and Neurotransmitters Resting Potential Action Potential Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters Neuromuscular Junction Meninges, Ventricles, Blood Supply Meninges Dura Mater Arachnoid Mater Pia Mater Meninges and Clinically-Relevant Spaces Ventricles Lateral Ventricles Third Ventricle Cerebral Aqueduct, Fourth Ventricle, and Other Passageways for CSF Production, Composition, and Circulation of CSF Blood Supply of Brain Anterior Circulation Posterior Circulation Circle of Willis MCA and Blood Supply to the Dominant Hemisphere Blood-Brain Barrier Speech and Language Functions of the Brain: Possible Sites and Mechanisms DIVA: Speech Sound Map (IvPMC) DIVA: Articulatory Velocity/Position Maps (PMC) DIVA: Auditory and Somatosensory Processing: Parietal Cortex and Frontal-Parietal Association Tracts DIVA: Where is Aphasia, Where are Dysarthria Types? Review References 7 ACOUSTICS Introduction Pressure Waves The Motions of Vibrating Air Molecules Are Governed by Simple Forces The Motions of Vibrating Air Molecules Change the Local Densities of Air Pressure Waves, Not Individual Molecules, Propagate Through Space and Vary as a Function of Both Space and Time The Variation of a Pressure Wave in Time and Space Can be Measured Temporal Measures Spatial Measures Pressure Waves: A Summary and Introduction of Sinusoids Sinusoidal Motion Sinusoidal Motion (Simple Harmonic Motion) Is Derived from the Linear Projection of Uniform Circular Speed When the Linear Projection of Uniform Circular Speed Is Stretched Out in Time, the Result is a Sine Wave Sinusoidal Motion Can Be Described by a Simple Formula, and Has Three Important Characteristics: Frequency, Amplitude, and Phase Sinusoidal Motion: A Summary Complex Acoustic Events Complex Periodic Events Have Waveforms That Repeat Their Patterns Over Time, and Frequency Components That Are Harmonically Related A Complex Periodic Waveform Can Be Considered as the Sum of the Individual Sinusoids at the Harmonic Frequencies Complex Aperiodic Events Have Waveforms in Which No Repetitive Pattern Can Be Discerned, and Frequency Components That Are Not Harmonically Related Complex Acoustic Events: Summary Resonance Mechanical Resonance A Simple Spring-Mass Model Can Be Used to Explain the Concept of Resonance The Relative Values of Mass (M) and Elasticity (K) Determine the Frequency of Vibration of the Simple Spring-Mass Model The Effects of Mass and Stiffness (Elasticity) on a Resonant System: A Summary Acoustic Resonance: Helmholtz Resonators The Neck of the Helmholtz Resonator Contains a Column, or Plug of Air, That Behaves Like a Mass When a Force Is Applied to It The Bowl of a Resonator Contains a Volume of Air That Behaves Like a Spring When a Force is Applied to It Acoustic Resonance: Tube Resonators Resonance in Tubes: A Summary Resonance Curves, Damping, and Bandwidth Energy Loss (Damping) in Vibratory Systems Can Be Attributed to Four Factors Time- and Frequency-Domain Representations of Damping in Acoustic Vibratory Systems An Extension of the Resonance Curve Concept: The Shaping of a Source by the Acoustic Characteristics of a Resonator Resonance, Damping, and Bandwidth: A Summary Review References 8 ACOUSTIC THEORY OF VOWEL PRODUCTION Introduction What Is the Precise Nature of the Input Signal Generated by the Vibrating Vocal Folds? The Time Domain The Frequency Domain The Periodic Nature of the Waveform The Shape of the Waveform The Ratio of Open Time to Closed Time Nature of the Input Signal: A Summary Why Should the Vocal Tract Be Conceptualized as a Tube Closed at One End? The Response of the Vocal Tract to Excitation How Are the Acoustic Properties of the Vocal Tract Determined? Area Function of the Vocal Tract How Does the Vocal Tract Shape the Input Signal? (How Is the Source Spectrum Combined with the Theoretical Vocal Tract Spectrum to Produce a Vocal Tract Output?) Formant Bandwidths Acoustic Theory of Vowel Production: A Summary What Happens to the Resonant Frequencies of the Vocal Tract When the Tube Is Constricted at a Given Location? The Three-Parameter Model of Stevens and House Tongue Height Tongue Advancement Configuration of the Lips Importance of the Stevens and House Rules: A Summary The Connection Between the Stevens and House Rules and Perturbation Theory Why Are the Stevens and House Rules Important? Another Take on the Relationship Between Vocal Tract Configuration and Vocal Tract Resonances Confirmation of the Acoustic Theory of Vowel Production Analog Experiments Human Experiments Review References Contents 9 THEORY OF CONSONANT ACOUSTICS Introduction Why Is the Acoustic Theory of Speech Production Most Accurate and Straightforward for Vowels? What Are the Acoustics of Coupled (Shunt) Resonators, and How Do They Apply to Consonant Acoustics? Nasal Murmurs Energy Loss in the Nasal Cavities, Antiresonances, and the Relative Amplitude of Nasal Murmurs Nasal Murmurs: A Summary Nasalization Nasalization: A Summary The Importance of Understanding Nasalization Coupled (Shunt) Resonators in the Production of Lateral Sounds Coupled (Shunt) Resonators in the Production of Obstruent Sounds What is the Theory of Fricative Acoustics? Fluid Flow in Pipes and Source Types Aeromechanic/Acoustic Effects in Fricatives: A Summary A Typical Fricative Waveform and Its Aeromechanical Correlates Mixed Sources in Fricative Production Shaping of Fricative Sources by Vocal Tract Resonators Measurement of Fricative Acoustics Spectral Measurements Temporal Measurements The Acoustic Theory of Fricatives: A Summary What is the Theory of Stop Acoustics? Intervals of Stop Consonant Articulation: Aeromechanics and Acoustics Closure (Silent) Interval Release (Burst) Interval Frication and Aspiration Intervals Voice-Onset Time Shaping of Stop Sources by Vocal Tract Resonators The Nature of Stop Sources The Shaping of Stop Sources Measurement of Stop Acoustics Spectral Measurements Temporal Measurements Stop Consonants: A Summary What Is the Theory of Affricate Acoustics? What Kinds of Acoustic Contrasts Are Associated with the Voicing Distinction in Obstruents? Review References 10 SPEECH ACOUSTIC ANALYSIS Introduction A Brief Historical Prelude The Original Sound Spectrograph: History and Technique The Original Sound Spectrograph: Summary Interpretation of Spectrograms: Specific Features Axes Glottal Pulses Formant Frequencies Silent Intervals and Stop Bursts Aperiodic Intervals Segmentation of Spectrograms Speech Acoustics is Not All About Segments: Suprasegmentals Digital Techniques for Speech Analysis Speech Analysis by Computer: From Recording to Analysis to Output Sampling Rate Sampling Rate Sidebar: Anti-Aliasing Filters Quantization (Bits) Analysis and Display Review References 11 ACOUSTIC PHONETICS DATA Introduction Vowels Vowel Acoustics, Dialect, and a Multicultural View of Acoustic Phonetics Within-Speaker Variability in Formant Frequencies Summary of Vowel Formant Frequencies A Brief Note on Vowel Formant Frequencies Versus Formant Trajectories Vowel Durations Intrinsic Vowel Durations Extrinsic Factors Affecting Vowel Durations Consonant Voicing Stress Speaking Rate Utterance Position Effects Speaking Style Diphthongs Nasals Nasal Murmurs Nasal Place Nasalization Semivowels Semivowel Durations Fricatives Formant Transitions and Fricative Distinctions Fricative Duration /h/ Acoustics Stops Closure Interval and Burst Flap Closures Closure Duration and Place of Articulation Stop Voicing: Some Further Considerations Bursts Acoustic Invariance and Theories of Speech Perception Acoustic Invariance at the Interface of Speech Production and Perception Affricates Acoustic Characteristics of Prosody Phrase-level F0 Contours Phrase-level Intensity Contours Stress Rhythm Review References 12 SPEECH PERCEPTION Introduction Early Speech Perception Research and Categorical Perception The /ba/-/da/-/ga/ Experiment Categorical Perception: Some General Considerations Labeling Versus Discrimination Categorical Perception: So What? Speech Perception Is Species Specific Categorical Perception of Stop Place of Articulation Shows the "Match" to Speech Production Duplex Perception Acoustic Invariance The Competition: General Auditory Explanations of Speech Perception Sufficient Acoustic Invariance Replication of Speech Perception Effects Using Nonspeech Signals Animal and Infant Perception of Speech Signals The Competition: D irect Realism A Tentative Summary Speech Perception and Word Recognition Why Should Speech-Language Pathologists Care About Speech Perception? Speech Intelligibility "Explanatory" Speech Intelligibility Tests Scaled Speech Intelligibility Review References 13 SWALLOWING Introduction Anatomy Breathing, Laryngeal, Velopharyngeal-Nasal, and Pharyngeal-Oral Structures Esophagus Stomach Forces and Movements of Swallowing Oral Preparatory Phase Oral Transport Phase Pharyngeal Transport Phase Esophageal Transport Phase Overlap of Phases Breathing and Swallowing Neural Control of Swallowing Role of the Peripheral Nervous System in Swallowing Role of the Central Nervous System in Swallowing Variables that Influence Swallowing Bolus Characteristics and Swallowing Consistency Volume Taste and Temperature Swallowing Mode Single Versus Sequential Swallows Cued Versus Uncued Swallows Body Position and Swallowing Development and Swallowing Age and Swallowing Sex and Swallowing Measurement of Swallowing Videofluoroscopy Endoscopy Ultrasonography Manometry Swallowing Disorders Clinical Professionals and Swallowing Disorders Review References NAME INDEX SUBJECT INDEX