Venography of the Inferior Vena Cava and Its Branches

1. Techniques of Angiographic Investigation of the Inferior Vena Cava.- 1.1 Cavography by Percutaneous Bifemoral Approach.- 1.2 Cavography by Percutaneous Unifemoral Approach.- 1.3 Retrograde Iliac Venography.- 1.4 Cavography with Intracaval Catheter - Retrograde Femoral Approach.- 1.5 Cavography with Intracaval Catheter - Anterograde Approach.- 1.6 Occlusive Cavography.- 1.7 Carboxyangiography.- 1.8 Contraindications for Bifemoral Cavography.- 1.9 Complications of Bifemoral Cavography.- References.- 2. Radioanatomy of the Inferior Vena Cava Pitfalls in Interpretation.- 2.1 Anatomy.- 2.2 Physiology.- 2.3 Radioanatomy - Pitfalls in Interpretation.- References.- 3. Congenital Anomalies of the Inferior Vena Cava.- 3.1 Review of the Embryology.- 3.2 Congenital Anomalies of the Postrenal Segment.- 3.3 Congenital Anomalies of the Retrohepatic Segment.- 3.4 Anomalies of the Left Renal Vein and Persistence of the Periaortic Venous Ring.- 3.5 Anomalies in the Termination of the Inferior Vena Cava; Terminations of Abnormal or Aberrant Vessels.- 3.6 Radiosurgical Applications.- References.- 4. Intrinsic Iliocaval Pathology. Thromboembolic Disease of the Iliac Veins and of the Inferior Vena Cava.- 4.1 General Remarks.- 4.2 Thrombophlebitis of the Iliac Veins.- 4.3 Left Common Iliac Compression Syndrome.- 4.4 Thrombosis of the Inferior Vena Cava.- 4.5 Membranous Occlusions and Stenoses of the Inferior Vena Cava Termination.- 4.6 Surgery in Iliofemoral and Iliocaval Phlebitis.- 4.7 Surgical Prevention of Embolic Migration.- References.- 5. Collateral Circulation.- 5.1 General Remarks.- 5.2 Unilateral Iliac Obstruction.- 5.3 Bilateral Iliac Obstruction (Without Caval Obstruction)..- 5.4 Postrenal Occlusion of the Inferior Vena Cava.- 5.5 Obstruction of the Middle Portion of theInferior Vena Cava.- 5.6 Obstruction of the Upper Portion of the Inferior Vena Cava.- References.- 6. Retroperitoneal Compressions of the Inferior Vena Cava.- 6.1 The Retroperitoneal Space.- 6.2 Kidney.- 6.3 Adrenals.- 6.4 Arterial Anomalies.- 6.5 Retroperitoneal Tumors.- 6.6 Retroperitoneal Lymph Node Involvements.- 6.7 Tumors of the Inferior Vena Cava.- References.- 7. Retroperitoneal Fibrosis.- 7.1 Clinical Data.- 7.2 Radiologic Investigations.- 7.3 Treatment.- References.- 8. Inferior Vena Cavography in Hepatic and Intraperitoneal Diseases.- 8.1 Anatomical Considerations.- 8.2 Technique.- 8.3 Radiologic Features.- References.- 9. Renal Venography.- 9.1 Anatomy.- 9.2 Technique.- 9.3 Normal Findings.- 9.4 Pathologic Findings.- 9.5 Indications.- 9.6 Conclusion.- References.- 10. Adrenal Venography.- 10.1 Review of the Anatomy.- 10.2 Technique.- 10.3 Results.- 10.4 Indications.- 10.5 Conclusion.- References.- 11. Spermatic Venography.- 11.1 Embryology.- 11.2 Anatomy.- 11.3 Technique.- 11.4 Results.- 11.5 Other Indications.- References.- 12. Hepatic Venography.- 12.1 History.- 12.2 Anatomy.- 12.3 Technique.- 12.4 Pathologic Findings.- References.- 13. Pelvic Venography in Females.- 13.1 Introduction.- 13.2 Angiographic Exploration Techniques.- 13.3 Radioanatomy of the Pelvic Veins in Women.- 13.4 Pelvic Venography in Genital Tumors.- 13.5 Syndrome of Ureteral Compression by the Ovarian Vein.- 13.6 Pelvic Varices in Women.- 13.7 Pelvic Veins and Pulmonary Embolism.- References.- 14. Lumbar Phlebography.- 14.1 Technique.- 14.2 Radioanatomy.- 14.3 Indications.- References.