Produce Contamination Problem (eBook)

Front Cover 1
The Produce Contamination Problem : Causes and Solutions 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 6
Preface 
16 
Contributors 
20 
Part 1: Introduction 24
Chapter 1: Scope of the Produce Contamination Problem 26
Introduction 26
Produce-Associated Outbreaks-a New Problem? 26
Consequences of Produce-Associated Outbreaks 27
Key Aspects of the Produce Contamination Problem 28
Characteristics of Produce-Associated Outbreaks 28
Prevalence of Produce Contamination with Human Pathogens 31
Microbial Attachment and Survival on Produce Surfaces 32
Potential Sources of Produce Contamination 32
Preharvest Sources 32
Contamination During Packing 33
Contamination During Fresh-Cut Processing 34
Gaps in Our Understanding of Produce Contamination 35
Current State of Knowledge 35
What We Don't Know 35
Developing Effective Interventions 36
References 37
Chapter 2: Microbial Attachment and Limitations of Decontamination Methodologies 44
Introduction 44
Ecological Niches and Introduction into the Plant Environment 46
Outbreak Investigations Reveal Sources and Persistence of Pathogens 47
The Plant Surface 48
Attachment of Pathogens to Plant Tissue 48
Attachment of Escherichia coli O157:H7 to Lettuce 49
Attachment of Salmonella to Tomatoes 51
Attachment of Salmonella to Cantaloupes 53
Biofilm Formation on Produce Surfaces 54
Internalization 55
Limited Efficacy of Conventional Decontamination Methodologies 59
Conclusion 62
References 62
Part 2: Sources of Contamination 70
Chapter 3: Identification of the Source of Contamination 72
Introduction 73
Overview: Phases of a Foodborne Outbreak Investigation 73
Surveillance and Detection 73
Epidemiologic 74
Environmental 76
Traceback Investigations 84
Regulatory/Enforcement 88
Prevention/Research 89
Training Needs for Environmental Investigators of Retail, Food-Processing Facilities, Packing Sheds, and Farms 89
Resuming Operations 90
Farm Investigations 91
Packinghouse Investigations 94
Vacuum Cooler/Hydrocooler Investigation 95
Fresh Cut Produce Processor Investigations 95
Intentional Contamination 96
Lessons Learned 96
Recommendations 98
References 99
Chapter 4: Manure Management 102
Introduction 102
Manure Use on Crops 105
Survival of Pathogens in Manure 107
Bacteria 107
Protozoan and Helminthic Parasites 110
Viruses 112
Pastures, Lots, and Runoff 113
Manure Treatment Technologies 115
Composting 116
Summary 120
References 121
Chapter 5: Water Quality 128
Introduction 128
Irrigation Water 129
Water Quality Standards for Irrigation Water 131
Occurrence of Pathogens in Irrigation Water 132
Contamination of Produce During Irrigation 134
Survival of Pathogens on Produce in the Field 136
Other Sources 136
Summary and Conclusions 137
References 138
Chapter 6: Sapro-Zoonotic Risks Posed by Wild Birds in Agricultural Landscapes 142
Introduction 143
Bird Species Commonly Associated with Agriculture 143
Pigeons 144
Gulls 146
Water Fowl 146
Passerines 146
Bacterial Diseases 147
Campylobacter 147
Chlamydia 148
Escherichia coli 148
Listeria 150
Salmonella 150
Fungal Diseases 151
Aspergillus 151
Cryptococcus 151
Histoplasma 152
Parasitic Diseases 153
Cryptosporidia 153
Microsporidia 153
Toxoplasma 153
Mitigation Options 154
Summary 155
References 156
Chapter 7: Produce Contamination by Other Wildlife 166
Introduction 166
Viral Pathogens 169
Bacterial Pathogens 169
Parasitic Pathogens 174
Protozoa 175
Helminths 176
Mitigating Wildlife-Crop Interactions 178
Summary 179
References 180
Part 3: Commodities Associated with Major Outbreaks and Recalls 186
Chapter 8: Leafy Vegetables 188
Introduction 188
Outbreaks Associated with Leafy Greens 189
Growing Conditions by Geographical Region: Link to Outbreaks 191
Harvesting Practices: Influence on Contamination 192
Processing Practices and Product Contamination 194
Handling Prior to Processing 194
Washing and Sanitizing 196
Packaging 198
Interaction of Microbes with Leafy Greens 200
Plant Leaf Characteristic 200
Native Flora of Leafy Greens 201
Microbe Characteristics 202
Influence of Cutting on Microbial Populations 204
Conclusions 204
References 205
Chapter 9: Melons 212
Introduction 213
Prevalence of Human Pathogens in and on Melons 213
Outbreaks of Foodborne Disease Linked to Melons 214
Characteristics of Outbreaks 214
Contributing Factors 217
Impact of Regulatory Actions 218
Potential Sources and Mechanisms of Contamination and Measures Recommended to Prevent Contamination 219
Preharvest 220
Postharvest 224
Cutting Practices 226
Structural Characteristics of Melons Promoting Microbial Survival and Growth 229
Current Knowledge about Growth and Survival of Pathogens in Melons 229
Cantaloupe Netting 230
Biofilm Formation 231
Microbial Infiltration and Internalization 232
Use of Antimicrobial Treatments to Decontaminate Melons 232
Treatments Tested on Fresh Melons 233
Fresh-Cut Melons 235
Treatment with Antimicrobial Agents 235
Irradiation 236
Conclusions 237
References 238
Chapter 10: Raw Tomatoes and Salmonella 246
Introduction 246
Commercial Tomato Production and Marketing 248
Evidence that Tomatoes were The Source of Outbreaks of Salmonellosis 252
Outbreak from South Carolina Tomatoes, 1990 252
Second Outbreak Traced to South Carolina Tomatoes, 1993 253
Multistate Outbreak of Salmonellosis, 1998 254
Transplant Games Outbreak, 2002 255
Outbreak of S. Newport Linked to Virginia Tomatoes, 2002 255
Multiserotype Convenience Store Outbreak, 2004 256
Second Outbreak of Salmonellosis Caused by Serotype Newport Traced Back to Tomatoes Produced on the Delmarva Peninsula, 2005... 257
Three-State Outbreak, 2005 258
Recurrence of Serotype Newport in Delmarva Tomatoes, 2006 258
Outbreak Linked to Ohio Tomatoes, 2006 259
Unanswered Questions 259
Recommendations for Commercial Tomato Production and Handling, Farm-To-Fork 266
References 267
Chapter 11: Tree Fruits and Nuts: Outbreaks, Contamination Sources, Prevention, and Remediation 272
Introduction 272
Organisms of Concern 273
Outbreaks Associated with Tree Fruits 275
Outbreaks Associated with Tree Nuts 277
Routes of Contamination 278
Prevention 281
Remediation 282
Conclusions 283
References 284
Chapter 12: Berry Contamination: Outbreaks and Contamination Issues 294
Introduction 294
The Impact of Major Outbreaks 296
History of Viral Contamination of Berries 297
Hepatitis A Outbreaks with Raspberries and Strawberries 298
Norovirus Associated Outbreaks with Raspberries 300
The Role of Cyclospora cayetanensis in Berry-Associated Outbreaks 302
Transmission of Cyclospora Oocysts and the Role of Foods 303
Bacterial Contamination of Berries 306
Contamination Reduction Strategies 308
In Summary 320
References 321
Part 4: Avoidance of Contamination 330
Chapter 13: Produce Contamination Issues in México and Central America 332
Introduction 332
Sources of Contamination 335
Irrigation Water 335
Runoff 338
Inadequate Disinfection Processes at Packinghouses 339
Conditions for Agricultural Workers 341
Good Agricultural Practices 344
Outbreak-Related Cases in México and Central America 346
Conclusions 349
References 349
Chapter 14: Regulatory Issues in Europe Regarding Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Safety 354
Introduction 355
The European Union 356
Basic Facts 356
The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and The European Economic Area (EEA) 357
European Fruit and Vegetable Production 357
Fresh Produce Contamination Problems in Europe 358
Foodborne Bacteria 359
Parasites 360
Foodborne Human Pathogenic Virus 360
Molds and Mycotoxins 361
European Regulations 362
EU Central Regulations 362
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) 363
Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed 363
Hygiene and Control Rules 365
GAP and Quality Assurance in Fruit and Vegetable Production 367
Import from Countries Outside EU and EEA (third countries) 368
GlobalGAP (formerly EurepGAP) 369
Differences from US Regulations 369
Funding of Food-Safety Research in Europe 371
Sources for Further Information 372
Acknowledgements 372
References 372
Chapter 15: Regulatory Issues in Japan Regarding Produce Safety 376
Introduction 377
Domestic Fresh Produce Production 380
Domestic Consumption of Fresh Produce 384
Fresh Produce-Related Outbreaks in Japan 384
Domestic Food Chain Approach from Farm to Table 387
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) in Japan 387
Outline of Japan GAP 388
Dealing with GAP in the Private Sector and Producer 389
Government Initiatives for Ensuring Produce Safety and Gaining Consumer Confidence 390
Initiatives in Ensuring Produce Safety and Stable Supply 390
Initiatives for Gaining Consumer Confidence 390
Imports and Distribution of Fresh Produce 391
Increasing Agricultural and Food Imports 391
Distribution Route of Fresh Produce 396
Vegetable Imports and Compliance 397
Safety Regulations and Their Enforcement in Japan 399
Scandals and a Major Change of Attitude 399
New Food Safety Policy and Public Standards 400
Main Role of The Food Safety Commission 401
Applicable Laws and Regulations 403
Plant Protection Law 403
Food Sanitation Law 403
Product Liability Law 404
Enforcement of Regulations and Standards in Practice 404
Private Sector View on Standards 407
Company Strategies and Company-Specific Quality Standards 407
Company-Specific Quality Standards as a Differentiation Strategy 408
Traceability 408
Conclusions 409
References 411
Part 5: Technology for Reduction of Human Pathogens in Fresh Produce 414
Chapter 16: Disinfection of Contaminated Produce with Conventional Washing and Sanitizing Technology 416
Introduction 416
Washing and Sanitizing Agents 418
Detergent Products 418
Chlorine 418
Alternatives to Chlorine 420
Other Approved Sanitizing Agents for Produce 424
Sanitizing Agents for Organic Crops 426
Expectations for Sanitizing Agents 426
Washing Equipment 426
Types of Washers 426
Efficacy of Commercial Washers 427
Produce Washes for Food Service and Home Use 428
Efficacy of Washing and Sanitizing Methods for Problem Commodities 430
Leafy Vegetables 430
Tomatoes 432
Cantaloupe 433
Apples 435
Conclusions 437
References 437
Chapter 17: Advanced Technologies for Detection and Elimination of Pathogens 448
Introduction 448
Detection Methods 449
Immunomagnetic Beads and Biosensors: Separation and Concentration 450
PCR-Based Methods 451
Computer/AI Optical Scanning 452
Antimicrobial Intervention Technologies 453
Cold Plasma 454
Irradiation 456
Pulsed Light 457
High-Pressure Processing 459
Sonication 459
Biological Controls 460
The Challenge of Technology Development for Organic Foods 461
Acknowledgements 462
References 462
Chapter 18: Conclusions and Recommendations 468
Introduction 468
Sources of Contamination 469
Commodities at Risk 470
Challenges of Produce Disinfection 472
Investigating Contamination on the Farm 472
Pre-emptive Food Safety Programs 473
The Farm-to-Fork Approach 474
Index 
476 
Food Science and Technology International Series 
488