Malaria in South Asia (eBook)

Rais Akhtar is CSIR Emeritus Scientist at the Centre for the Study of Regional Development, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. He has published more then 12 books and numerous articles on medical geography. He is the recipient of multiple international fellowships, and was nominated to the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which co-won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 with Al Gore.Dr. Ashok K. Dutt is Professor Emeritus of Geography, Planning, and Urban Studies at The University of Akron. He has published in major journals of the world and has written and edited over 20 books. He has been a Fulbright Scholar and Ford Foundation Fellow, received the R.N. Dubey Foundation award for Lifetime Achievement in Geography, and was honored with the title of Bhugool Bachaspati (Most Learned Geographer) in 2008 at the National Congress of National Association of Indian Geographers.Dr. Vandana Wadhwa is Lecturer at Boston University, Massachusetts. She has published in several major journals and contributed various books chapters and encyclopedia entries. She is the former Chair of the Health & Medical Geography Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers, Secretary-Treasurer of its Disability Specialty Group, and Director of South Asia Studies within the Asian Geography Specialty Group.

Foreword 5
Preface 1 8
Preface 2 9
Preface 3 11
Reference 13
Acknowledgments 14
Contents 16
Annotated Glossary and Abbreviations 17
Contributors 26
About the Authors 27
1 The History and Progression of Malaria: A Global and Regional View 30
Malaria Goes Global: A Brief History 31
Malarial Cycle: Agent, Vector, and Host 33
Agent 34
Vector 34
Host 35
Breakthroughs of Science in the War Against Malaria 35
Public Health and Protection Measures 36
DDT: A Potent Mosquito Killer 37
Anti-malarial Drugs: A Brief History 38
Proactive Measures: The Role of IPT 40
The Elusive Vaccine 41
Trends in Malaria Occurrence 42
Malaria in the Twentieth Century 43
Twenty-First Century Concerns 47
What Is to Follow: An Overview of the Chapters 49
Notes 53
References 53
2 Resurgence of Malaria in Sri Lanka in the 1970s 57
Physical Factors Affecting Malaria 58
Resurgence of Malaria 60
Eradication: The Science Behind the Hunt for a Vaccine 67
Note 68
References 68
3 Malaria in Sri Lanka: A Geomedical Analysis 70
Etiology and Epidemiology 70
The Malaria Originator 70
The Transmitter to Humans 71
Environmental Factors: Human and Physical 72
Documenting Malaria in Sri Lanka 74
Study Data Set and Analysis 77
Phases of Malaria: A Model of Malaria Progression in Sri Lanka 79
Seasonal and Spatial Variation of Malaria Occurrence 83
Seasonal Occurrence 83
Regional Characteristics 84
Analysis of the Malaria Situation 87
Promotive and Inhibitive Factors for Malaria Occurrence 89
Intra-corporeal Factors 89
Extra-corporeal Factors: The Critical Role of Precipitation 90
Other Human Factors Influencing Malaria Occurrence 91
Cultural Factors 91
Town Infrastructure Deterioration 92
Cultivation and Irrigation Practices 92
Policy Considerations Arising from the Study 95
Rivers and Tanks as Indicators of a Malaria Epidemic 95
The Districts of Sri Lanka as Malaria Clearing Areas 96
Conclusions for the Malaria Campaign 99
Notes 101
References 101
4 Malaria Resurgence in Nepal: An Overview 103
Incidence of Malaria in Nepal 103
Agents of Malaria in Nepal and the Malaria Parasite 104
Malaria Vectors 106
Malaria Parasites 106
Resurgence Characteristics and Causes 13
Regional Distribution 107
Factors Causing Malaria Resurgence 109
Strategy for Malaria Control 110
Summary and Conclusion 110
Notes 111
References 111
5 Resurgence and Post-resurgence Periods of Malariain Bangladesh 113
Vectors and Malarial Ecology in Bangladesh 120
Resurgence and Post-resurgence Periods 123
Eradication: Challenges and Innovations 126
Conclusion 128
Note 130
References 130
6 Resurgence of Malaria in Bangladesh 132
Mortality and Morbidity: A General Background 132
Mortality and Malaria: Dynamics of Change 133
Brief Survey of Literature 134
Methodology 134
Malaria in Bangladesh 135
Malaria Agents and Vectors in Bangladesh 136
A. dirus balabacensis 137
A. philippinensis 137
A. minimus 139
A. sundaicus 139
Resurgence of Malaria 139
Malaria Zones 141
High Malaria Risk Zone 143
Medium Malaria Risk Zone 144
Low Malaria Risk Zone 144
Conclusions 144
Note 146
References 146
7 The Resurgence of Malaria in Pakistan: A GeographicalEvaluation 148
The Conceptual Framework 149
An Overview of Malaria Resurgence in Pakistan 151
Measuring the Intensity of Malaria Resurgence 155
Spatial Trends in Malaria Intensity 155
The Hypothesis of Malaria Eradication: An Appraisal 159
Evaluation of MEPs Performance 161
Conclusions 162
Notes 163
References 164
8 Malaria Resurgence in Urban India: Lessons from Health Planning Strategies 165
Background and Context of the Study 166
Malaria Vectors in India and Their Suited Ecology 166
Urban Malaria: A Historical Review 166
Phase I---Pre-independence Period (Beginning of the Century Till 1947) 166
Phase II--Period of Active Anti-malarial Drives (1948--1965) 167
Phase III--Period of Malaria Resurgence (1966--1977) 168
Phase IV--Post-resurgence Period (1978--1993, Study Period) 169
Research Design and Methodology 169
Results and Discussion 170
Pattern of Malaria Incidence in 1978 170
Pattern of Malaria Incidence in 1993 172
Spatio-temporal Change in Malaria Intensity Over 1978--1993 175
Conclusion: Planning, Prevention, and Cure 175
Notes 178
References 178
9 The Dynamics of Urban Malaria in India: An Update 180
Urban Ecology and Malaria 180
Data and Methodology 183
Some Notes on Methodology 188
Results and Discussion 190
Urban Malaria in 1994 190
Urban Malaria in 1997 192
Shifts in Urban Malaria from 1994 to 1997 195
Dynamics of Urban Malaria in India, 19781997: Cycles of Resistance and Cycle of Regional Occurrence 197
Conclusion 199
Notes 200
References 200
10 Lessons from the Past, View to the Future: Summary and Concluding Remarks 202
Malaria Enablers: Physical and Cultural Environments 203
Human Interventions Against Malaria in South Asia 204
Malaria in South Asia: Nation-Wise Comparison and Summary 206
Malaria in South Asia in the Twenty-First Century: A Brief Update 208
Combating Malaria: A View to the Future 208
Roll Back Malaria Initiative (RBM) and the Global Malaria Program 209
Malaria Vaccines and Other Advancements 211
Summary and Conclusion 214
For Richer, for Poorer, in Sickness and in Health… 217
Notes 219
References 219
Color Plates 224
Index 256