Upgrading and Repairing PCs

Scott Mueller is the president of Mueller Technical Research (MTR), an international research and corporate training firm. Since 1982, MTR has produced the industry’s most in-depth, accurate, and effective seminars, books, articles, videos, and FAQs covering PC hardware and data recovery. MTR maintains a client list that includes Fortune 500 companies, the U.S. and foreign governments, major software and hardware corporations, as well as PC enthusiasts and entrepreneurs. Scott’s seminars have been presented to several thousands of PC support professionals throughout the world.   Scott personally teaches seminars nationwide covering all aspects of PC hardware (including troubleshooting, maintenance, repair, and upgrade), A+ Certification, and data recovery/forensics. He has a knack for making technical topics not only understandable, but entertaining; his classes are never boring! If you have ten or more people to train, Scott can design and present a custom seminar for your organization.   Although he has taught classes virtually nonstop since 1982, Scott is best known as the author of the longest-running, most popular, and most comprehensive PC hardware book in the world, Upgrading and Repairing PCs, which has become the core of an entire series of books, including Upgrading and Repairing PCs, Upgrading and Repairing Laptops, and Upgrading and Repairing Windows.   Scott’s premiere work, Upgrading and Repairing PCs, has sold more than two million copies, making it by far the most popular and longest-running PC hardware book on the market today. Scott has been featured in Forbes magazine and has written several articles for PC World magazine, Maximum PC magazine, the Scott Mueller Forum, various computer and automotive newsletters, and the Upgrading and Repairing PCs website.   Contact MTR directly if you have a unique book, article, or video project in mind or if you want Scott to conduct a custom PC troubleshooting, repair, maintenance, upgrade, or data-recovery seminar tailored for your organization:   Mueller Technical Research Web: www.muellertech.com Email: info@muellertech.com Forum: www.forum.scottmueller.com   Scott has a forum exclusively for his readers at www.forum.scottmueller.com. Anybody can view the forum, but posting is only available to registered members.   If you have suggestions or comments about the book or new book or article topics you would like to see covered, send them to info@muellertech.com.

  Introduction 1

1 Development of the PC 5

Computer History: Before Personal Computers 5

  Timeline 5

  Electronic Computers 10

Modern Computers 10

  From Tubes to Transistors 11

  Integrated Circuits 13

History of the PC 14

  Birth of the Personal Computer 14

  The IBM Personal Computer 15

  The PC Industry 30 Years Later 16

2 PC Components, Features, and System Design 19

What Is a PC? 19

  Who Controls PC Software? 20

  Who Controls PC Hardware? 23

  White-Box Systems 26

System Types 26

System Components 28

3 Processor Types and Specifications 29

Microprocessor History 29

  The First Microprocessor 29

  PC Processor Evolution 32

  16-Bit to 64-Bit Architecture Evolution 34

Processor Specifications 35

  Data I/O Bus 42

  Address Bus 42

  Internal Registers (Internal Data Bus) 44

  Processor Modes 44

  Processor Benchmarks 49

  Comparing Processor Performance 49

  Cache Memory 53

Processor Features 60

  System Management Mode (SMM) 60

  Superscalar Execution 61

  MMX Technology 62

  Dynamic Execution 64

  Dual Independent Bus Architecture 65

  HT Technology 65

  Multicore Technology 66

  Hardware-Assisted Virtualization Support 68

Processor Manufacturing 69

  Processor Re-Marking 74

  PGA Chip Packaging 74

  Single Edge Contact and Single Edge Processor Packaging 75

Processor Socket and Slot Types 75

  Socket 478 78

  Socket LGA775 79

  Socket LGA1156 80

  Socket LGA1366 81

  Socket LGA1155 82

  Socket LGA2011 83

  Socket 939 and 940 83

  Socket AM2/AM2+/AM3/AM3+ 84

  Socket F (1207FX) 86

  Socket FM1 86

  Socket FM2 86

CPU Operating Voltages 87

Math Coprocessors (Floating-Point Units) 87

Processor Bugs and Steppings 88

Processor Code Names 88

P1 (086) Processors 89

P2 (286) Processors 90

P3 (386) Processors 91

P4 (486) Processors 92

P5 (586) Processors 93

  AMD-K5 96

Intel P6 (686) Processors 96

  Pentium Pro Processors 97

  Pentium II Processors 97

  Pentium III 99

  Celeron 100

Intel Pentium 4 Processors 101

  Pentium 4 Extreme Edition 104

  Intel Pentium D and Pentium Extreme Edition 106

Intel Core Processors 108

  Intel Core 2 Family 108

  Intel (Nehalem) Core i Processors 110

AMD K6 Processors 114

  NexGen Nx586 114

  AMD-K6 Series 116

AMD K7 Processors 117

  AMD Athlon 117

  AMD Duron 118

  AMD Athlon XP 118

  Athlon MP 120

AMD K8 Processors 120

  AMD Athlon 64 and 64 FX 120

  AMD Sempron 124

  AMD Athlon X2, 64 X2, and 64 FX 125

AMD K10 Processors (Phenom, Phenom II, Athlon II, Athlon X2, Sempron) 126

AMD “Bulldozer” and “Piledriver” FX Processors 128

AMD Fusion/HSA (Heterogeneous Systems Architecture) APUs 131

Processor Upgrades 132

Overclocking 133

  Quartz Crystals 134

  Modern PC Clocks 136

  Overclocking Tips 138

  Unlocking Cores 139

  Bus Speeds and Multipliers 140

Processor Cooling 142

  Heatsinks 143

  Liquid Cooling 148

  Thermally Advantaged Chassis 149

Processor Troubleshooting Techniques 151

4 Motherboards and Buses 155

Motherboard Form Factors 155

  Obsolete Form Factors 156

  ATX and Other Modern Form Factors 167

Processor Sockets/Slots 178

Chipsets 181

  Chipset Evolution 181

  Intel Chipsets 183

  Intel Chipset Model Numbers 184

  Intel Integrated Graphics Architecture 185

  AMD Integrated Graphics Architecture 185

  Traditional North/South Bridge Architecture 185

  Hub Architecture 187

  HyperTransport and Other Processor/Chipset Interconnects 188

Intel’s Early 386/486 Chipsets 190

Fifth-Generation (P5 Pentium Class) Chipsets 190

Sixth-Generation (P6 Pentium Pro/II/III Class) Chipsets 192

Seventh/Eighth-Generation (Pentium 4/D, Core2, and Core i) Chipsets 195

  Intel 915 Family 202

  Intel 925X Family 203

  Intel 945 Express Family 203

  Intel 955X and 975X Family 204

  Intel 96x Series 204

  Intel 3x and 4x Series Chipsets 205

  Intel 5x Series Chipsets 208

  Intel 6x Series Chipsets 211

  Intel 7x Series Chipsets 213

Third-Party Chipsets for Intel Processors 215

  SiS Chipsets 215

  ULi Electronics Chipsets 215

  ATI Chipsets 216

  VIA Chipsets 216

  NVIDIA Chipsets for Intel Processors 216

Chipsets for AMD Processors 217

AMD Athlon Chipsets 217

AMD Athlon 64 Chipsets 218

  AMD 8000 (8151) Chipset 219

     AMD (Formerly ATI) Chipsets for Athlon 64, Sempron, Phenom 220

  Third-Party Chipsets for AMD Processors 226

  VIA Chipsets 226

  SiS Chipsets 227

  NVIDIA Chipsets 227

Super I/O Chips 228

Motherboard Connectors 228

System Bus Types, Functions, and Features 239

  The Processor Bus (FSB) 245

Types of I/O Buses 245

  The ISA Bus 245

  The Micro Channel Bus 246

  The EISA Bus 246

  Local Buses (VESA, PCI, PCI Express, AGP) 246

System Resources 254

  Interrupts 254

  DMA Channels 259

  I/O Port Addresses 259

Motherboard Selection Criteria (Knowing What to Look For) 260

  Chipset Documentation 262

5 BIOS 263

BIOS Basics 263

Motherboard ROM BIOS 267

  ROM Hardware 267

  ROM Shadowing 269

  ROM Chip Types 269

  ROM BIOS Manufacturers 273

  BIOS Hardware/Software 274

Upgrading the BIOS 274

  Where to Get Your BIOS Update 275

  Determining Your BIOS Version 275

  Checking the BIOS Date 275

  Backing Up Your BIOS 276

  Backing Up Your BIOS Setup (CMOS RAM) Settings 276

  Upgrading a Flash BIOS 277

  Motherboard CMOS RAM Addresses 285

Preboot Environment 287

Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) 289

  UEFI and BIOS Limitations 290

  UEFI Support 291

BIOS Setup 292

  Running or Accessing the BIOS Setup Program 292

  BIOS Setup Menus 292

  Maintenance Menu 293

  Main Menu 294

     Advanced Menus 295

  Security Menu 311

  Power Menu 312

  Boot Menu (Boot Sequence, Order) 314

  Exit Menu 315

  Additional BIOS Setup Features 316

PnP BIOS 317

  PnP Device IDs 318

  ACPI 318

BIOS/MBR Error Messages 319

  BIOS Boot Error Messages 320

  MBR Boot Error Messages 322

6 Memory 325

Memory Basics 325

  ROM 327

  DRAM 327

  Cache Memory: SRAM 329

Memory Standards 331

Speed and Performance 332

  Fast Page Mode DRAM 335

  Extended Data Out RAM 336

  SDRAM 337

  DDR SDRAM 338

  DDR2 SDRAM 340

  DDR3 SDRAM 342

  DDR4 SDRAM 344

  RDRAM 345

Memory Modules 346

  Registered Modules 351

  SDR DIMM Details 352

  DDR DIMM Details 353

  DDR2 DIMM Details 353

  DDR3 DIMM Details 353

Determining a Memory Module’s Size and Features 354

Memory Banks 356

Memory Module Speed 357

Parity and ECC 357

  Parity Checking 359

  How Parity Checking Works 359

  ECC 360

RAM Upgrades 361

  Upgrade Options and Strategies 362

  Purchasing Memory 364

  Replacing Modules with Higher-Capacity Versions 366

  Installing Memory Modules 366

Troubleshooting Memory 368

Memory Defect Isolation Procedures 372

The System Logical Memory Layout 374

7 The ATA/IDE Interface 377

An Overview of the IDE Interface 377

  Precursors to IDE 377

  IDE Origins 378

  Origins of ATA 379

ATA Standards 380

  ATA-1 (ATA Interface for Disk Drives) 382

  ATA-2 (ATA Interface with Extensions-2) 382

  ATA-3 (ATA Interface-3) 383

  ATA/ATAPI-4 (ATA with Packet Interface Extension-4) 383

  ATA/ATAPI-5 (ATA with Packet Interface-5) 384

  ATA/ATAPI-6 (ATA with Packet Interface-6) 385

  ATA/ATAPI-7 (ATA with Packet Interface-7) 386

  ATA/ATAPI-8 386

PATA 387

  PATA I/O Connector 387

  PATA I/O Cable 390

  Longer or Rounded Cables 392

  PATA Signals 392

  PATA Dual-Drive Configurations 393

  PATA PIO Transfer Modes 396

  PATA DMA Transfer Modes 396

SATA 398

  SATA Standards and Performance 398

  SATA Express 399

  SATA Cables and Connectors 401

  eSATA 404

  SATA Configuration 407

  Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) 408

  Non-Volatile Memory Express (NVMe) 409

  SATA Transfer Modes 409

ATA Features 410

  ATA Commands 410

  ATA Security Mode 411

  Host Protected Area 412

  ATAPI 413

ATA Drive Capacity Limitations 413

  Prefixes for Decimal and Binary Multiples 414

  BIOS Limitations 415

  CHS Versus LBA 416

  CHS/LBA and LBA/CHS Conversions 417

  BIOS Commands Versus ATA Commands 418

  CHS Limitations (the 528MB Barrier) 419

  CHS Translation (Breaking the 528MB Barrier) 421

  The 2.1GB and 4.2GB Barriers 423

  LBA-Assist Translation 425

  The 8.4GB Barrier 427

  The 137GB Barrier and Beyond 429

  Operating System and Other Software Limitations 430

GPT and the 2.2TB Barrier 432

PATA/SATA RAID 434

Software RAID 436

8 Magnetic Storage Principles 439

Magnetic Storage 439

History of Magnetic Storage 439

How Magnetic Fields Are Used to Store Data 440

Read/Write Head Designs 443

  Ferrite 444

  Metal-In-Gap 444

  Thin-Film 444

  Magneto-Resistive Heads 445

  Giant Magneto-Resistive Heads 446

Head Sliders 448

Data-Encoding Schemes 450

  Frequency Modulation Encoding 451

  Modified FM Encoding 451

  Run Length Limited Encoding 452

  Encoding Scheme Comparisons 453

  Partial-Response, Maximum-Likelihood Decoders 455

Capacity Measurements 455

Areal Density 456

Perpendicular Magnetic Recording 458

9 Hard Disk Storage 461

Definition of a Hard Disk 461

Hard Drive Advancements 462

Form Factors 463

  5 1/4-Inch Drive 464

  3 1/2-Inch Drive 465

  2 1/2-Inch Drive 465

  1.8-Inch Drive 466

  1-Inch Drives 466

HDD Operation 466

  The Ultimate HDD Analogy 469

  Tracks and Sectors 470

  ECC 472

  Disk Formatting 477

Basic HDD Components 482

     Hard Disk Platters (Disks) 483

  Recording Media 484

  Read/Write Heads 485

  Head Actuator Mechanisms 487

  Air Filters 494

  Hard Disk Temperature Acclimation 495

  Spindle Motors 495

  Logic Boards 496

 Cables and Connectors 497

  Configuration Items 497

Hard Disk Features 498

  Capacity 498

  Performance 500

  Reliability 504

10 Flash and Removable Storage 507

Alternative Storage Devices 507

Flash Memory Devices 507

  CompactFlash 509

  SmartMedia 509

  MultiMediaCard 510

  SecureDigital 510

  Sony Memory Stick 510

  ATA Flash PC Card 511

  xD-Picture Card 511

  SSD (Solid-State Drive) 511

  USB Flash Drives 516

  Comparing Flash Memory Devices 517

  SD Cards Speed Class and UHS Speed Class Markings 519

  File Systems Used by Flash Memory 520

  Flash Card Readers 520

  Card Readers 520

  ReadyBoost Support 521

Cloud-Based Storage 522

Floppy Disk Drives 523

Tape Drives 523

11 Optical Storage 525

Optical Technology 525

CD-Based Optical Technology 526

  CDs: A Brief History 526

  CD Construction and Technology 527

  Mass-Producing CDs 527

     Writable CDs 539

  MultiRead Specifications 545

  MultiPlay and MultiAudio 547

DVD 547

  DVD History 548

  DVD Construction and Technology 549

  DVD Tracks and Sectors 550

  Handling DVD Errors 554

  DVD Capacity (Sides and Layers) 555

  Data Encoding on the DVD Disc 558

  Recordable DVD Standards 559

  Multiformat Rewritable DVD Drives 566

BD 567

HD-DVD 569

Optical Disc Formats 570

  CD Formats 570

  DVD Formats and Standards 578

  Optical Disc File Systems 582

Ripping/Copying Discs 587

  “For Music Use Only” CD-R/RW Discs 588

  CD Copy Protection 588

  CD Digital Rights Management 589

  DVD and Blu-ray Copy Protection 589

Optical Drive Performance Specifications 593

  CD Data Transfer Rate 593

  CD Drive Speed 593

  DVD Drive Speed 595

  Access Time 598

  Buffer/Cache 598

  Direct Memory Access and Ultra-DMA 598

  Interface 598

  Loading Mechanism 599

  Other Drive Features 600

How to Reliably Record Optical Discs 600

  Booting from a Floppy Disk with Optical Drive Support 601

  Bootable Optical Discs—El Torito 601

  LightScribe and LabelFlash 602

Troubleshooting Optical Drives 602

  Caring for Optical Media 606

  Updating the Firmware in an Optical Drive 607

12 Video Hardware 609

Display Adapters and Monitors 609

Video Display Adapters 610

  Video Adapter Types 610

 Integrated Video/Motherboard Chipsets 611

  CPUs with Integrated Video 616

  Video Adapter Components 617

  Identifying the Video and System Chipsets 619

  Video RAM 620

  The DAC 624

Video Display Interfaces 624

  The System Interface 624

  The Display Interface 626

  TV Display Interfaces 641

3D Graphics Accelerators 642

  How 3D Accelerators Work 642

  APIs 645

  Dual-GPU Scene Rendering 648

Monitors 650

  Display Specifications 650

  LCD Technology 661

  LED Backlit Technology 663

  CRT Display Technology 663

  Plasma Display Technology 665

  LCD and DLP Projectors 666

Using Multiple Monitors 667

  Dualview 667

  Homogeneous Adapters 668

  Heterogeneous Adapters 668

Choosing the Best Display Hardware for a Particular Task 668

Video Troubleshooting and Maintenance 669

  Troubleshooting Video Cards and Drivers 670

  Video Drivers 672

  Maintaining Monitors 672

  Testing Monitors 673

  Adjusting Monitors 674

  Bad Pixels 675

  Troubleshooting Monitors 676

  Repairing Monitors 677

13 Audio Hardware 679

Audio Hardware Concepts and Terms 680

  The Nature of Sound 680

  Evaluating the Quality of Your Audio Hardware 680

  Sampling 681

Early PC Sound Cards 682

  Limitations of Sound Blaster Pro Compatibility 682

  Microsoft Windows and Audio Support 682

  DirectX and Audio Support Hardware 683

  Core Audio APIs for Windows 683

  3D Gaming Audio Standards 684

  Legacy Audio Support Through Virtualization 685

Audio Hardware Features 686

  Basic Connectors 686

  Audio Signal Processing Methods 688

     Advanced Audio Features 688

  Volume Control 690

  MIDI Support Features 691

  Data Compression 692

  Sound Drivers 693

  Sound Cards for Sound Producers 693

Motherboard Chipsets with Integrated Audio 694

  Intel “Azalia” HD Audio 694

Troubleshooting PC Audio Problems 694

  Sound Card and Onboard Audio Problems 695

Speakers 698

  Speaker Selection Criteria 698

  Theater and Surround Sound Considerations 699

Microphones 700

14 External I/O Interfaces 703

Introduction to Input/Output Ports 703

  Serial Versus Parallel 703

  Universal Serial Bus (USB) 704

  IEEE 1394 (FireWire or i.LINK) 718

  Comparing USB and IEEE 1394 (FireWire) 722

Thunderbolt Technology 728

Low-Speed External Connections 729

  Serial Ports 730

  Parallel Ports 734

15 Input Devices  739

Keyboards 739

  Enhanced 101-Key Keyboard 739

  103/104-Key Windows Keyboard 740

Keyboard Technology 742

  Keyswitch Design 742

  The Keyboard Interface 747

  Typematic Functions 749

  Keyboard Scan Codes 749

  International Keyboard Layouts 750

  Keyboard/Mouse Interface Connectors 751

  USB Keyboards 753

  Keyboards with Special Features 754

Keyboard Troubleshooting and Repair 754

  Cleaning a Keyboard 755

Keyboard Recommendations 756

Pointing Devices 757

  Mouse Sensitivity 758

  Ball-Type Mice 758

  Optical Mice 759

  Pointing Device Interface Types 760

  Scroll Wheels 762

  Mouse Troubleshooting 764

  Cleaning Your Mouse 765

  Alternative Pointing Devices 765

Touchscreen Technology 770

Wireless Input Devices 771

  Power Management Features of Wireless Input Devices 772

  Troubleshooting Wireless Input Devices 773

16 Internet Connectivity 775

Internet Connectivity Trends 775

Broadband Internet Access Types 775

  Cable TV 776

  Digital Subscriber Line 779

 Wireless Broadband 783

  Cellular Broadband 3G and 4G Services 783

  Satellite Broadband 784

  ISDN 787

  Leased Lines 788

  Comparing High-Speed Internet Access 789

Dial-Up Modems 790

  56Kbps Modems 791

Internet Connection Security 794

  Having a Backup Plan in Case of Service Interruptions 795

  Sharing Your Internet Connection 795

  Routers for Internet Sharing 796

  Modem/Router Status LEDs 797

17 Local Area Networking 799

Defining a Network 799

  Types of Networks 800

  Requirements for a Network 801

Client/Server Versus Peer Networks 801

  Client/Server Networks 802

  Peer-to-Peer Networks 803

  Comparing Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networks 804

Network Architecture Overview 804

  Wired Ethernet 806

  Wireless Ethernet 807

  Bluetooth 813

Hardware Elements of Your Network 814

  NICs for Wired Ethernet Networks 814

  Network Cables for Wired Ethernet 816

  Wired Network Topologies 824

  Switches for Ethernet Networks 827

  Wireless Ethernet Hardware 831

Network Protocols 836

  IP and TCP/IP 836

  IPX and NetBEUI 837

Other Home Networking Solutions 838

  HomePNA 838

  Power Line Networking 839

Putting Your Network Together 840

  Network Adapters 840

  Cables and Connections Between Computers 842

  Switch/Access Point 842

18 Power Supplies 845

The Power Supply 845

Primary Function and Operation 845

  Voltage Rails 846

  The Power Good Signal 848

Power Supply Form Factors 849

  Modern Form Factors 852

Power Switches 866

  ATX and Newer 866

  PC/XT/AT and LPX Power Switches 868

Motherboard Power Connectors 870

  AT/LPX Power Supply Connectors 870

  ATX and ATX12V Motherboard Power Connectors 872

  Backward and Forward Compatibility 885

  Dell Proprietary (Nonstandard) ATX Design 887

Additional Power Connectors 887

  Peripheral Power Connectors 887

  Floppy Power Connectors 888

  Serial ATA Power Connectors 889

  PCI Express Auxiliary Graphics Power Connectors 890

Power Supply Specifications 893

  Power Supply Loading 893

     Power Supply Ratings 895

  Other Power Supply Specifications 896

  Power Factor Correction 898

  SLI-Ready and CrossFireX Certifications 900

  Safety Certifications 900

Power-Use Calculations 901

Power Savings 903

  80 Plus 903

  ENERGY STAR 904

  Advanced Power Management 904

  Advanced Configuration and Power Interface 905

Power Cycling 908

Power Supply Troubleshooting 911

  Overloaded Power Supplies 912

  Inadequate Cooling 913

  Using Digital Multimeters 913

  Specialized Test Equipment 916

Power Supply Recommendations 918

  Modular Cables 919

  Sources for Replacement Power Supplies 919

Power-Protection Systems 919

  Surge Suppressors (Protectors) 921

  Network and Phone Line Surge Protectors 922

  Line Conditioners 922

  Backup Power 922

Real-Time Clock/Nonvolatile RAM (CMOS RAM) Batteries 925

  Modern CMOS Batteries 925

  Obsolete or Unique CMOS Batteries 927

  CMOS Battery Troubleshooting 928

19 Building or Upgrading Systems 929

System Components 929

  Before You Start: How to Decide What to Build 931

  Case and Power Supply 933

  Processor 934

  Motherboard 935

     Memory 936

  I/O Ports 937

  Hard Disk/Solid-State Drives 938

  Removable Storage 939

  Input Devices 939

  Video Card and Display 940

  Audio Hardware 940

  Accessories 941

Hardware and Software Resources 942

System Assembly and Disassembly 942

  Assembly Preparation 943

  Installing the CPU and Heatsink 946

  Installing Memory Modules 952

  Mounting the New Motherboard in the Case 953

  Preparing a Modular Power Supply 958

  Connecting the Power Supply 958

  Connecting I/O and Other Cables to the Motherboard 961

  Installing the Drives 962

  Installing a Video Card 967

  Installing Additional Expansion Cards 969

  Replacing the Cover and Connecting External Cables 969

System Startup 969

Installing the OS 971

Troubleshooting New Installations 972

20 PC Diagnostics, Testing, and Maintenance 975

PC Diagnostics 975

Diagnostics Software 975

  The POST 976

  Peripheral Diagnostics 989

  Operating System Diagnostics 989

  Commercial Diagnostics Software 990

  Free/User Supported Diagnostics 991

The Boot Process 991

  The Hardware Boot Process: Operating System Independent 992

  The DOS Boot Process 996

  The Windows 9x/Me Boot Process 997

  Windows 2000/XP Startup 997

  Windows Vista/7 Startup 998

  Windows 8 Startup 998

PC Maintenance Tools 999

  Hand Tools 1000

  Safety 1003

  Test Equipment 1004

  Special Tools for the Enthusiast 1009

Preventive Maintenance 1011

  Active Preventive Maintenance Procedures 1011

  Passive Preventive Maintenance Procedures 1016

Troubleshooting Tips and Techniques 1021

  Repair or Replace? 1021

  Basic Troubleshooting Steps 1021

  Troubleshooting by Replacing Parts 1022

  Troubleshooting by the Bootstrap Approach 1023

  Problems During the POST 1024

  Problems Running Software 1024

  Problems with Adapter Cards 1025

  Top Troubleshooting Problems 1025

9780789750006, ToC, 2/18/2013