Educator Stress (eBook)

Teresa Mendonça McIntyre, M.Ed. M.A., Ph.D. FEHPS, is Dean of the College of Education and Behavioral Sciences and Professor of Psychology at Houston Baptist University, and Adjunct Professor at the Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation and Statistics, University of Houston, U.S.A, where she had been Research Professor. She was previously Director of the Health Psychology Doctoral/Master’s programs at the University of Minho, Portugal. She has had over 20 years of experience as lead researcher in job stress, health and education, more recently as principal investigator on a U.S. Department of Education (IES) funded grant on teachers’ stress, effectiveness, and student outcomes. Dr. McIntyre has been President of the European Health Psychology Society (EHPS), is Fellow of the EHPS, and Deputy Chair of its Honorary Fellows Committee. She has served on many journal editorial boards, including The European Psychologist, Health Psychology Review, Health Psychology Bulletin and the Brazilian Review of Health Promotion. Dr. McIntyre has edited and co-edited several books, and has published more than 150 chapters and articles internationally.Scott E. McIntyre, M.Ed., M.A., Ph.D. is an Associate Professor and Director of the Industrial Organizational program at the University of Houston-Clear Lake. He has a diversified experience in organizational consulting, such as with AT&T (U.S.) and International Survey Research (ISR, U.K.). In Portugal, he was a Professor of Social and Organizational Psychology at the University of Minho and at the University Institute of Maia (ISMAI) where he chaired the Psychology Department. Together with his wife, he pioneered the development of Occupational Health Psychology in Portugal and conducted research on occupational stress in at-risk professions. He has published internationally and co-edited several books, such as “Occupational Health Psychology: European perspectives on research, education and practice”(Vols. I and II). He served on the Executive Committee of the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology and was a charter member of the Society of Occupational Health Psychology, and is ad-hoc reviewer in several organizational and occupational health journals.David J. Francis, M.A., Ph.D., is Hugh Roy and Lillie Cranz Cullen Distinguished University Chair of Quantitative Methods in the Department of Psychology, is the Director of the Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics, and Co-Director of the Center for Advanced Computing and Data Systems at the University of Houston. He is a Fellow of the Association for Psychological Science, of Division 5 of the American Psychological Association, and an Inaugural Fellow of the American Educational Research Association. He has published over 250 scientific articles and has served on the editorial boards of numerous journals in psychology and education. Dr. Francis chairs the National Research Council’s Board on Testing and Assessment, is a frequent advisor to the U.S. Department of Education on statistical issues, assessment and accountability, and English Language Learners, and is internationally known for his research on validity in the identification and classification of learning disabilities. 

Dedication 6
Foreword 1 7
References 8
Foreword 2 9
Preface 11
Contents 15
Part I: Defining the Problem of Educator Stress in the Context of Current Education Challenges 24
Chapter 1: School Context and Educational System Factors Impacting Educator Stress 26
1.1 Context and System Factors Influencing Educator Stress 27
1.1.1 Occupational Support at Work 28
1.1.2 Relational Context of Schooling 31
1.1.2.1 Teacher-Student Relationships 32
1.1.2.2 Relationships with Colleagues 34
1.1.3 Systemic Factors in Educational Policy 35
1.1.3.1 Standardized Testing 36
1.1.3.2 Educational Innovations 37
1.2 Future Directions 39
1.3 Conclusion 40
References 40
Chapter 2: Current Knowledge on the Nature, Prevalence, Sources and Potential Impact of Teacher Stress 46
2.1 Introduction 46
2.2 What Do We Mean by Teacher Stress? 48
2.3 How Prevalent Is Teacher Stress and Burnout? 50
2.4 What Causes Teacher Stress? 51
2.4.1 Constant Changes in Teaching and Education 51
2.4.2 The School Context, Culture and Environment 53
2.4.3 The Teacher’s Role and Level of Experience 54
2.4.4 Teachers’ Relationships in School 55
2.4.5 Aspects of the Individual Teacher 57
2.4.6 Conclusion 58
2.5 What Are the Consequences of Teacher Stress? 59
2.5.1 Impact on the Individual Teachers’ Health and Well-Being 59
2.5.2 Impact on Teachers’ Satisfaction and Commitment to the Profession 60
2.5.3 Impact on Teachers’ Performance in the Classroom 62
2.6 A Move Towards More In-Depth and Innovative Research Methodologies to Study Teacher Stress 63
References 66
Chapter 3: Consequences of Job Stress for the Mental Health of Teachers 78
3.1 Epidemiologic Findings 79
3.1.1 Main Epidemiologic Findings 80
3.1.2 Exposure to Violence 82
3.1.3 Evaluation of the Epidemiologic Evidence 82
3.2 Within-Occupation Research on Job Stressors and Mental Health 83
3.2.1 A Brief Look at Cross-Sectional Findings 83
3.2.2 Longitudinal Research Findings 84
3.3 Workplace Stressors and Burnout 85
3.3.1 A Brief Look at Cross-Sectional Findings 85
3.3.2 Longitudinal Research Findings 86
3.3.3 Longitudinal Studies Involving Coping and Burnout 87
3.4 Evaluation of the Longitudinal Findings on Mental Health and Burnout 88
3.5 Recommendations Regarding Research on the Impact of Teachers’ Working Conditions on Mental Health and Burnout 88
3.6 Burnout and Depression in Teachers. Different Labels, Same Phenomenon? 89
3.6.1 Burnout-Depression Overlap: Recent Empirical Findings 89
3.6.2 Burnout as a Job-Related Syndrome 90
3.6.3 Treatment Implications 91
3.7 Conclusions 91
3.7.1 Wider Ramifications 92
References 93
Chapter 4: Biological Pathways to Stress-Related Disease Vulnerability in Educators 99
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 Stress and Strain in Educators 100
4.3 The Physiological Stress Response 102
4.3.1 Allostatic Load 103
4.4 Measurement of Primary Mediators 104
4.4.1 Basal Cortisol Secretion Assessed with the Cortisol Awakening Response (CAR) and Cortisol Day Profiles 104
4.4.2 Hair Cortisol 105
4.4.3 Reactivity of Cortisol After Psychosocial Stress Paradigms 105
4.4.4 Reactivity and Feedback Sensitivity After Pharmacological Challenge Paradigms 106
4.4.5 Interactions Between the HPA Axis and the Immune System 106
4.5 Results on Primary Mediators 107
4.5.1 Stress Hormones 107
4.5.2 Cytokines 110
4.6 Measurement of Secondary Outcomes 112
4.6.1 Blood Coagulation Factors 112
4.6.2 Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability 112
4.7 Results on Secondary Outcomes 113
4.7.1 Coagulation Factors 113
4.7.2 Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability 114
4.7.3 Allostatic Load – Summary Index 114
4.8 Outlook and Concluding Remarks 115
References 116
Chapter 5: Teacher Stress and Teacher Self-Efficacy: Relations and Consequences 123
5.1 Introduction 124
5.2 Teacher Self-Efficacy 125
5.2.1 Defining and Measuring Teacher Self-Efficacy 126
5.2.2 Sources of Self-Efficacy 127
5.2.3 Correlates of Teacher Self-Efficacy 127
5.2.4 Age and Gender Differences in Teacher Self-Efficacy 128
5.2.5 Relations Between Teacher Stress and Teacher Self-Efficacy 129
5.2.6 Conclusions 131
5.3 The Present Study 133
5.3.1 Participants 133
5.3.2 The Interviews 134
5.3.3 Data Analysis 134
5.4 Results 135
5.4.1 Characteristics of the Norwegian School Impacting Teachers: Shared Experiences 135
5.4.2 Tim and Heidi 136
5.4.3 5.4.3. Hanna and Irene 138
5.5 Discussion 139
References 144
Chapter 6: Consequences of Educator Stress on Turnover: The Case of Charter Schools 148
6.1 Educator Stress and Attrition 149
6.2 Charter Schools 151
6.3 Teacher’s Personal Characteristics and Attrition 152
6.4 School Context and Teacher Attrition 153
6.5 Empirical Study 156
6.5.1 Research Purpose and Questions 156
6.5.2 Methods 157
6.5.2.1 Inclusion Criteria 157
6.5.2.2 Sample Description 158
6.5.2.3 Predictor Variables 159
6.5.2.4 Statistical Analyses 160
6.5.3 Results 162
6.5.3.1 Descriptive Summary of Attrition 162
6.5.3.2 Survival Analysis Models 162
6.6 Discussion 170
6.7 Conclusion, Future Research, and Implications 171
6.7.1 Future Research 172
6.7.2 Implications 172
References 173
Chapter 7: The Role of Culture and Other Contextual Factors in Educator Stress 177
7.1 What Is Teacher Stress and How Pervasive Is It Across Countries? 178
7.2 Cross-cultural and International Research Examining Teacher Stress and Occupational Health Outcomes 180
7.2.1 Teacher Burnout 180
7.2.2 Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction 182
7.2.3 Teacher Stress and Workforce Stability 183
7.2.4 Summary of Cross-cultural and International Research Examining Teacher Stress and Occupational Health Outcomes 184
7.3 Cultural, Governmental, and School Factors in Teacher Stress 185
7.3.1 Cultural Attitudes Involving Respect for Teachers 186
7.3.2 Educational Accountability and Reform 187
7.3.3 Teacher Autonomy 188
7.3.4 School Leadership 189
7.3.5 Summary of Governmental and School Contextual Factors Associated with Teacher Stress 190
7.4 Conclusion 191
References 191
Part II: Understanding Educator Stress from an Occupational Health Framework 198
Chapter 8: Development and Testing of a Theoretical-­Empirical Model of Educator Stress, Coping and Burnout 200
8.1 Introduction 200
8.1.1 Conceptions and Definitions 201
8.2 Highlights from Three Articles 202
8.2.1 A Meta-analysis for Exploring the Diverse Causes and Effects of Stress in Teachers 202
8.2.1.1 Literature Review of Stress, Coping and Burnout 203
8.2.1.2 The Model 205
8.2.2 Francophone Elementary and Secondary Student Teacher Stress, Coping, and Burnout 208
8.2.3 Francophone University Professors’ Stress, Coping, Locus of Control, and Burnout 209
8.3 Discussion and Implications 210
References 212
Chapter 9: The Job Demand-Control (-Support) Model in the Teaching Context 215
9.1 Job Demand-Control (-Support) Model 216
9.2 The Job Demand-Control-Support Model in Relation to Employee Health and Well-Being 218
9.2.1 Occupation-Specific Versus Generic Measurement 219
9.2.2 The Matching Hypothesis 223
9.3 Review of Teachers’ Stress Studies Based on the JDC(S) Model 225
9.3.1 The (Iso)-Strain Hypothesis and the Buffer Hypothesis 225
9.3.1.1 Indicators of Health and Well-Being 226
9.3.1.2 Physiological Indicators of Stress and the Stress Process 229
9.3.2 The Learning Hypothesis 231
9.4 Conclusion 233
References 236
Chapter 10: Applying Occupational Health Theories to Educational Stress and Health: Evidence from the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model 241
10.1 Theoretical Background 241
10.2 Applying the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model to Teachers 244
10.3 Teachers’ Stressful Work and Their Health: Empirical Evidence 245
10.3.1 Results of Epidemiologic Studies 245
10.3.2 Results from Experimental and Naturalistic Studies 248
10.4 Practical Implications of Current Knowledge 250
References 251
Websites 253
Chapter 11: Applying Occupational Health Theories to Educator Stress: Contribution of the Job Demands-Resources Model 254
11.1 The Job Demands-Resources Model 255
11.1.1 The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout 255
11.1.2 The Revised Job Demands-Resources Model 258
11.2 Job Demands, Job Resources, and Teacher Stress and Well-Being 262
11.2.1 Approach 263
11.2.2 Results 263
11.3 Discussion 271
References 273
Chapter 12: Towards a Dynamic Integrative Theory of Educator Stress 277
12.1 Introduction 278
12.2 A Case for Dynamic Integrative Approaches to Educator Stress 279
12.2.1 A Dynamic Perspective 279
12.2.2 An Integrative Approach 281
12.2.3 Conclusion 283
12.3 The DITS Model Components 284
12.3.1 The Job Demand-Control-Support Model 284
12.3.2 The Effort-Reward Imbalance Model 285
12.3.3 Similarities and Differences Between the JDCS and ERI Models 286
12.3.4 The Teacher Stress Model (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978)
12.4 DITS Model Testing 288
12.4.1 Methodology 289
12.4.2 Results 291
12.4.2.1 Time and Covariate Effects 292
12.4.2.2 Additive Hypothesis Results 294
12.4.2.3 Buffer Hypothesis Results 295
12.4.3 Discussion 296
12.5 Conclusion 300
References 301
Part III: Managing and Reducing Stress in Education Systems 306
Chapter 13: Defining Healthy Schools: An Occupational Health Psychology Perspective on Healthy School Climates 308
13.1 Introduction 309
13.2 An Overview of Occupational Health Psychology 310
13.3 Work Organization and Organizational Health Climate 312
13.3.1 Organizational Health Climate 313
13.3.2 Safety Climate 316
13.3.3 Extensions to Safety Climate Literature 317
13.3.4 Conclusions About Climate Models 320
13.4 Total Worker Health™ 322
13.5 Creating the Psychologically Healthy Workplace 323
13.6 General Conclusions 324
References 327
Chapter 14: Individual-Level Interventions: Mindfulness-­Based Approaches to Reducing Stress and Improving Performance Among Teachers 333
14.1 Stress and Burnout 334
14.2 Mindfulness-Based Interventions 335
14.3 Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Teachers 338
14.3.1 Preliminary Research 338
14.3.2 Standardized MBIs for Teachers 339
14.3.2.1 Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR) 339
14.3.2.2 Cultivating Emotional Balance in Challenging Times 339
14.3.2.3 Stress Management and Relaxation Techniques (SMART) in Education 341
14.3.2.4 Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) for Teachers 345
14.3.3 Summary 351
14.4 Limitations and Future Directions 351
References 354
Chapter 15: Individual-Organizational Interface (IOI) Interventions to Address Educator Stress 361
15.1 Definitions of Individual-Organizational Interface (IOI) Interventions 361
15.2 The Suitability and Popularity of IOI Interventions in Educational Settings 365
15.3 Examples of IOI Interventions in Educational Settings 366
15.3.1 Collaborative Problem-Solving 367
15.3.2 Mentoring Support and Induction Programs 370
15.3.3 Developing Educators’ Classroom Management 371
15.3.4 Performance-Related Feedback 374
15.3.5 Teamwork Interventions 375
15.4 Quantity, Quality and Usability of IOI Intervention Research 377
15.5 Future Directions 378
References 379
Chapter 16: Organizational Interventions to Reduce Sources of K-12 Teachers’ Occupational Stress 383
16.1 Introduction 384
16.1.1 Models of Organizational Interventions 385
16.1.2 Models of Organizational Interventions in Primary and Secondary Education 386
16.2 Research on Organizational Interventions in Primary and Secondary Education 387
16.2.1 Support/Skills Building Interventions 388
16.2.2 Organization of Work Interventions: Job Redesign 404
16.2.3 Summary of Research on Organizational Interventions 405
16.3 Current Approaches Towards Organizational Interventions in Primary and Secondary Education 407
16.3.1 Collective Bargaining 407
16.3.2 Legislative/Policy Approaches 415
16.3.3 Promising Models for Research 416
16.4 Conclusions and Recommendations 418
References 420
Chapter 17: New Directions in Intervention: Cyber-­Bullying, Schools and Teachers 425
17.1 Defining Cyber-Bullying 426
17.1.1 Different Forms of Cyber-Bullying 429
17.2 Risks Associated with Cyber-Bullying 429
17.2.1 Prevalence Rates 430
17.2.2 Age and Gender Differences in Prevalence 431
17.2.3 Effects of Cyber-Bullying 432
17.2.4 Teachers Being Victimized 433
17.2.5 Risk & Risk Management
17.3 Legal and Policy Context of Cyber-Bullying 434
17.3.1 The U.K. Perspective 435
17.3.2 The U.S. Perspective 436
17.3.3 Similarities: The U.K. and U.S. 438
17.4 Preventing and Managing Cyber-Bullying 438
17.4.1 Banning Phones at School 439
17.4.2 Anti-bullying Programs 439
17.4.3 Educational Resources 441
17.4.4 Intervention Strategies: An Overview 441
17.5 Conclusions 442
References 444
Part IV: Implications for Research, Practice, and Policy in Education 450
Chapter 18: Issues in Research Methodology on Educator Stress 452
18.1 The Challenge of Clustering Observations 454
18.2 The Challenge of Time 457
18.3 Ecological Momentary Assessment 459
18.3.1 The Logic of Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) 459
18.3.2 EMA Methodological Considerations 461
18.3.3 EMA Statistical Considerations 463
18.4 Multilevel Modeling of EMA Data 463
18.4.1 Empirical Example 467
18.4.2 EMA Summary 472
18.5 Survival Analysis 472
18.5.1 Teacher Stress Dataset and Analysis Objectives 473
18.5.2 Mathematical Background 474
18.5.3 Kaplan Meier Estimator of the Survival Function 475
18.5.3.1 Comparisons of Survival Functions across Independent Groups 476
18.5.3.2 Cox-proportional Hazards Model 477
18.5.3.3 Extended Cox Model: Time-Dependent Covariates-Fatigue 479
18.6 Chapter Summary 480
References 481
Chapter 19: Translating Educator Stress Research into Practice and Policy 484
19.1 The Issue 484
19.1.1 Recognizing Educator Stress 485
19.1.2 Teacher Shortage and Attrition 486
19.1.3 Teacher Preparation, Professional Development, and Content Knowledge 487
19.2 Moving Toward Possible Solutions 488
19.2.1 When to Intervene 488
19.2.2 Legislation and Policy 490
References 494
Chapter 20: Implications of an Occupational Health Perspective for Educator Stress Research, Practice, and Policy 497
20.1 Introduction 498
20.2 An Occupational Health Perspective 500
20.3 Implications of an OH Perspective for Educator Stress Research 504
20.4 Implications of an OH Perspective for Educator Stress Intervention/Practice 507
20.4.1 Interventions Focused on the Job/Task 508
20.4.2 Interventions Focused on the Employer/Organization 508
20.4.2.1 Leadership Training and Development 509
20.4.3 Total Worker Health® (TWH) 510
20.5 Future OH Intervention Development in Education Contexts 510
20.6 Conclusion 512
References 513
Index 518