Human Learning: Pearson New International Edition

PART I. INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN LEARNING



Chapter 1. Learning and the Brain

Basic Building Blocks of the Human Nervous System

Neurons

Synapses

Glial Cells

Brain Structures and Functions

Methods in Brain Research

Parts of the Brain

The Left and Right Hemispheres

Interconnectedness of Brain Structures

Development of the Brain

Prenatal Development

Development in Infancy and Early Childhood

Development in Middle Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood

Factors Influencing Brain Development

To What Extent Are There Critical Periods in Brain Development?

To What Extent Is the Brain "Prewired" to Know or Learn Things?

The Physiological Basis of Learning

Educational Implications of Brain Research

Summary



Chapter 2. Perspectives on Learning

The Importance of Learning

Defining Learning

Determining When Learning Has Occurred

Research, Principles, and Theories

How Theories of Learning Have Evolved over Time

Advantages of Theories

Potential Drawbacks of Theories

A Perspective on Theories and Principles

Applying Knowledge about Learning to Instructional Practice

Overview of the Book

Summary







PART II. BEHAVIORIST VIEWS OF LEARNING

Chapter 3. Behaviorism and Classical Conditioning

Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning

The Classical Conditioning Model

Classical Conditioning in Human Learning

Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning

Cognition in Classical Conditioning

Changing Undesirable Conditioned Responses

Educational Implications of Behaviorist Assumptions and Classical Conditioning

Summary



Chapter 4. Instrumental Conditioning

Thorndike's Early Research

Rewards and Reinforcement

Skinner's Operant Conditioning

The Various Forms That Reinforcement Can Take

Punishment

Effective Forms of Punishment

Ineffective Forms of Punishment

Common Phenomena in Instrumental Conditioning

Superstitious Behavior

Shaping

Chaining

Extinction

Effects of Reinforcement Schedules

Avoidance Learning

Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses in Instrumental Conditioning

Cueing

Setting Events

Generalization

Stimulus Discrimination

Behavioral Momentum

Cognition and Motivation in Instrumental Conditioning

Summary



Chapter 5. Applications of Instrumental Conditioning

Applying Behaviorist Principles to Classroom Management

Concerns about Using Reinforcement and Punishment in the Classroom

Using Reinforcement to Increase Desirable Behaviors

Strategies for Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors

Applied Behavior Analysis

Using Applied Behavior Analysis with Large Groups

Adding a Cognitive Component to ABA

Instructional Objectives

Behavioral Objectives

Current Perspectives on Instructional Objectives

Usefulness and Effectiveness of Objectives

Formulating Different Levels of Objectives

Programmed Instruction and Computer-Assisted Instruction

Effectiveness of PI and CAI

Mastery Learning

Keller's Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

Effectiveness of Mastery Learning and PSI

When Behaviorist Techniques Are Most Appropriate

Summary



PART III. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY

Chapter 6. Social Cognitive Theory

General Principles of Social Cognitive Theory

Environmental Factors in Social Learning: Revisiting Reinforcement and Punishment

Problems with a Strict Behaviorist Analysis of Social Learning

Cognitive Factors in Social Learning

Reciprocal Causation

Modeling

How Modeling Affects Behavior

Characteristics of Effective Models

Behaviors That Can Be Learned through Modeling

Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling to Occur

Self-Efficacy

How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition

Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy

Self-Regulation

Elements of Self-Regulation

Promoting Self-Regulated Behavior

The Cognitive Side of Self-Regulation

Educational Implications of Social Cognitive Theory

Summary



PART IV. COGNITIVE VIEWS OF LEARNING

Chapter 7. Introduction to Cognitivism

Edward Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Gestalt Psychology

Verbal Learning Research

Introduction to Contemporary Cognitivism

General Assumptions of Cognitive Theories

Information Processing Theory

Constructivism

Contextual Theories

Integrating Cognitive Perspectives

General Educational Implications of Cognitive Theories

Summary



Chapter 8. Basic Components of Memory

A Dual-Store Model of Memory

Sensory Register

Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention

Working Memory

Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Information with Prior

Knowledge

Long-Term Memory

Challenges to the Dual-Store Model

Are Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Really Different?

Is Conscious Thought Necessary for Long-Term Memory Storage?

Alternative Views of Human Memory

Levels of Processing

Activation

Remembering That The Map Is Not the Territory

Generalizations about Memory and Their Educational Implications

Summary



Chapter 9. Long-Term Memory I: Storage and Encoding

Construction in Storage

Examples of Construction in Action

Long-Term Memory Storage Processes

Selection

Rehearsal

Meaningful Learning

Internal Organization

Elaboration

Visual Imagery

How Procedural Knowledge Is Acquired

Does New Knowledge Require a Consolidation Period?

Factors Affecting Long-Term Memory Storage

Working Memory

Prior Knowledge

Prior Misconceptions

Expectations

Verbalization

Enactment

Repetition and Review

Promoting Effective Storage Processes

Some Final Remarks about Long-Term Memory Storage

Summary



Chapter 10. Long-Term Memory II: The Nature of Knowledge

The Various Kinds of Knowledge

Declarative and Procedural Knowledge

Explicit and Implicit Knowledge

How Knowledge Is Encoded in Long-Term Memory

Encoding in Terms of Physical Characteristics

Encoding in Terms of Actions

Encoding in Terms of Symbols

Encoding in Terms of Meanings

Different Forms of Encoding Are Not Mutually Exclusive

The Organization of Long-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory as a Hierarchy

Long-Term Memory as a Network

Parallel Distributed Processing

Concepts

Theories of Concept Learning

Factors Facilitating Concept Learning

Schemas and Scripts

Personal Theories

Personal Theories versus Reality

Fostering Theory Development

Worldviews

The Challenge of Conceptual Change

Promoting Conceptual Change

Development of Expertise

Generalizations about the Nature of Knowledge

Summary



Chapter 11. Long-Term Memory III: Retrieval and Forgetting

How Retrieval Works

Retrieval Cues

Construction in Retrieval

The Power of Suggestion: Effects of Subsequently Presented

Information

Constructing Entirely New "Memories"

Remembering Earlier Recollections

Self-Monitoring During Retrieval

Important Cautions in Probing People's Memories

Forgetting

Decay

Interference and Inhibition

Repression

Failure to Retrieve

Construction Error

Failure to Store or Consolidate

The Case of Infantile Amnesia

General Principles of Retrieval for Instructional Settings

Summary



PART V. DEVELOPMENTAL AND CONTEXTUAL PERSPECTIVES

Chapter 12. Cognitive-Developmental Perspectives

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Key Ideas in Piaget's Theory

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Current Perspectives on Piaget's Theory

Capabilities of Different Age-Groups

Effects of Experience and Prior Knowledge

Effects of Culture

Views on Piaget's Stages

Neo-Piagetian Theories of Cognitive Development

Case's Theory

Implications of Piagetian and Neo-Piagetian Theories

Summary



Chapter 13. Sociocultural Theory and Other Contextual Perspectives

Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development

Key Ideas in Vygotsky's Theory

Comparing Piaget's and Vygotsky's Theories

Current Perspectives on Vygotsky's Theory

Social Construction of Meaning

Scaffolding

Participation in Adult Activities

Apprenticeships

Acquisition of Teaching Skills

Dynamic Assessment

Adding a Sociocultural Element to Information Processing Theory

Intersubjectivity

Social Construction of Memory

Collaborative Use of Cognitive Strategies

Expanding the Contextualist Framework

General Implications of Sociocultural and Contextualist Theorists

Peer-Interactive Instructional Strategies

Class Discussions

Reciprocal Teaching

Cooperative Learning

Peer Tutoring

Communities of Learners

Technology-Based Collaborative Learning

Summary



PART VI. COMPLEX LEARNING AND COGNITION

Chapter 14. Metacognition, Self-Regulated Learning, and Study Strategies

Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills

Self-Regulated Learning

The Roots of Self-Regulated Learning

Effective Learning and Study Strategies

Meaningful Learning and Elaboration

Organization

Note Taking

Identifying Important Information

Summarizing

Comprehension Monitoring

Mnemonics

Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and Skills

Epistemic Beliefs

Developmental and Cultural Differences in Epistemic Beliefs

Effects of Epistemic Beliefs

The Intentional Learner

Why Students Don't Always Use Effective Strategies

Promoting Effective Learning and Study Strategies

Summary



Chapter 15. Motivation and Affect

General Effects of Motivation

Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation

Basic Human Needs

Drive Reduction

Arousal

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Competence and Self-Worth

Self-Determination

Relatedness

Individual Differences in Motivation

Need for Affiliation

Need for Approval

Need for Achievement

Dispositions

Affect and Its Effects

How Affect Is Related to Motivation

How Affect Is Related to Learning and Cognition

Anxiety

Creating a Motivating Classroom Environment

Summary



Chapter 16. Transfer, Problem Solving, and Critical Thinking

Transfer

Types of Transfer

Theories of Transfer

Factors Affecting Transfer

Problem Solving

Theories of Problem Solving

Cognitive Factors in Problem Solving

Problem-Solving Strategies

Meaningless Versus Meaningful Problem Solving

Facilitating Transfer and Problem Solving in the Classroom

Critical Thinking

Developmental, Individual, and Cultural Differences in Critical Thinking

Fostering Critical Thinking in the Classroom

Summary



PART VII. MOTIVATION





Chapter 17. Cognitive Factors in Motivation

Interests

Effects of Interest

Factors Promoting Interest

Expectancies and Values

Effects of Expectancies and Values

Factors Influencing Expectancies and Values

Goals

Achievement Goals

Work-Avoidance Goals

Social Goals

Career Goals

Coordinating Multiple Goals

Attributions

Effects of Attributions

Factors Influencing the Nature of Attributions

Explanatory Style: Mastery Orientation Versus Learned Helplessness

Motivation, Affect, and Self-Regulation

How Motivation and Affect Influence Self-Regulation

How Self-Regulation Influences Motivation and Affect

Internalized Motivation

Encouraging Motivating Cognitions

A TARGETS Mnemonic for Motivational Strategies

Summary



REFERENCES