Handbook of Clinical Child Neuropsychology (eBook)

Contributors 5
Preface to the Third Edition 9
Contents 11
Part 1: Foundations and Current Issues 14
Development of Neuropsychology as a Professional Psychological Specialty: History, Training, and Credentialing 15
Background 15
Assessment Approaches 17
Professional Context of Child Neuropsychology 18
Levels of Inference 18
Credentialing of Psychologists 19
Definition of a Clinical Neuropsychologist 20
General Issues in Child Clinical Training 22
Focus on Training in Clinical Child Neuropsychology 23
Professional Context of Clinical Child Neuropsychology 25
Professional Relationships 25
Appendix 25
Guidelines for Doctoral Training Programs in Clinical Neuropsychology 26
Guidelines for Neuropsychology Internships in Clinical Neuropsychology 26
Experiences to Be Provided 27
Didactic Training 27
Experiential Training 27
Exit Criteria 27
Guidelines for Postdoctoral Training in Clinical Neuropsychology 27
Entry Criteria 28
General Considerations 28
Specific Considerations 28
Didactic Training 28
Experiential Training 28
Exit Criteria 29
Additional Sources 29
References 29
Development of the Child’s Brain and Behavior 31
Introduction 31
Anatomical Development of the Child’s Brain 33
Neural Generation 33
Cell Migration 36
Axonal Development 36
Dendritic Development 36
Synaptic Development 37
Glial Development 38
Myelin Development 38
Neurochemical Development 39
Postnatal Brain Development 39
Cell Death 40
Imaging Studies of Brain Development 40
Cortical Function at Birth 41
Abnormal Development of the Child’s Brain 41
Abnormal Neural Structure 41
Injury and Brain Development 42
Behavioral Correlates of Brain Development 43
Motor Systems 43
Language Development 43
Cerebral Asymmetry 46
Development of Problem-Solving Ability 46
Development of Neuropsychological Test Performance 48
Frontal Lobe Tests 48
Abnormal Brain Development and Behavior 49
Early Brain Injury and Behavior 50
Conclusion 53
References 53
Development of Cerebral Lateralization in Children 59
Lateral Asymmetry as a Pervasive Design Characteristic in Nature and the World 59
The Normative Adult Endpoint of Hemisphere Specialization 59
Development of Hemisphere Specialization: Competing Hypotheses 60
The Origin of Bisymmetry 61
Asymmetry (Somatic) 61
Asymmetry (Neural) 61
Morphological Asymmetries in the Human 62
Peripheral Laterality 64
Infant Central Laterality 65
Emergence of Hand Preference in Children 65
Development of Central Laterality in Childhood 66
Lateralization Probed by Lateral Cerebral Damage 69
Lateralization in Developmental Deficit 70
Introduction 70
Hand Preference in Developmental Disabilities 70
Central Laterality in Developmental Deficits 71
References 73
Development of Higher Brain Functions: Birth Through Adolescence 79
Introduction 79
Development of the Human CNS 80
Morphology 80
Neuroembryonic Structure Formation 81
Basal Ganglia 82
Ventricle Formation and CSF 83
Spinal Cord Formation, Alar and Basal Plates 83
Hippocampi 84
Cellular Differentiation of the Nervous System 85
Sex Differences in Brain Structure 90
Fetal Sex Steroid Hormones and Neural Development 90
Summary 90
Factors Affecting Normal Brain Development and Higher Cortical Functions 91
General Factors Involved in Human Brain Growth 92
Mass Growth of the Brain 92
White Matter Development 93
Cortical Development and Timing: A Link to IQ 93
Intelligence, IQ, Spearman’s ‘‘g’’ and Cortical Development 94
Frontal Lobes and Executive Processes 95
Sensorimotor Functions and the Appearance of Neurological Reflexes 95
Prematurity and Low Birth Weight 96
Frontal Lobe Maturation 96
Nutrition and Malnutrition 97
Cerebral Oxygen Consumption and Blood Flow 97
EEG Development 99
Speech and Oral Communication Development 100
Acculturation Processes 102
Postnatal Perceptual, Cognitive, and Motor Development 102
Memory 103
Symbolization and Early Cognitive Development 104
Mirror Neurons (MN) 105
Williams-Beuren Syndrome (WS) 105
Brain Maturation in Early and Late Cognitive Development 107
Adolescents: Brain and Behavior Development 108
Autistic Spectrum and Asperger Syndrome 109
Brain Changes and Reading 110
Cerebral Asymmetry and Cerebral Lateralization 110
New Brain Imaging Techniques for Studying Normal Brain Development and its Functions 112
Neuroimaging and Other Research Methods 112
MRI 112
Magnetic Resonance (MR) and Fluid-Attenuated Inversion Recovery (FLAIR) Imaging of the Normal, Healthy Brains 113
EPI 114
PETT 114
Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS) 115
MSI 116
MegEEG 116
Research Designs and Methodologies 116
Conclusion 117
References 118
Neuropsychology of Child Psychopathology 129
Introduction 129
Foundations: Review of Early Studies 130
Psychiatric Sequelae of Childhood Brain Dysfunction 130
Prevalence of Brain Dysfunction Among Children with Psychiatric Disorders 133
Conceptual Issues 135
Findings in Selected Categories of Child Psychopathology 137
Autistic Disorder 137
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 140
Conduct Disorders 142
Affective Disorders 144
Anxiety Disorders 146
Childhood Schizophrenia 147
Implications for Research and Practice 148
References 150
Neurodevelopmental Malformations: Etiology and Clinical Manifestations 159
Abnormalities in the Bulk Growth of the Brain 159
Micrencephaly 160
Megalencephaly 160
Dysplasias of the Cerebral Hemispheres 161
Holoprosencephaly 161
Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum 164
Malformations of the Cerebral Cortex 165
Agyria (Lissencephaly) and Pachygyria 165
Focal Dysplasia/Heterotopia 167
Polymicrogyria 167
Hydrocephalus and Associated Malformations 168
Hydrocephalus 168
Dandy-Walker Malformation 169
Arnold-Chiari Malformation 170
Stenosis of the Aqueduct of Sylvius 171
Abnormalities of the Neural Tube and Fusion Deficits 171
Spina Bifida 171
Cranium Bifidum and Encephalocele 172
Anencephaly 173
Hydranencephaly 174
Porencephaly 174
Conclusions 175
References 176
Pediatric Brain Injury: Mechanisms and Amelioration 181
Epidemiological Mechanisms 181
Physiological Mechanisms 183
Psychological Mechanisms 186
Neuropsychological/Neurodevelopmental Assessment 188
School-Related Issues 190
Physical Sequelae 192
References 195
Neuropsychological Basis of Learning Disabilities 199
The Concept of Learning Disabilities 199
Prevalence of Learning Disabilities 201
Etiology and Genetics of Learning Disabilities 201
Subtyping Learning Disabilities 205
A Neuropsychological Model to Assess Learning Disability 207
Evaluating Learning Disability in the Context of a Comprehensive Neuropsychological Evaluation 209
Interventions for Learning Disabilities 209
Summary 210
References 211
Measurement and Statistical Problems in Neuropsychological Assessment of Children 215
Normative Data and Standardization Samples 217
Gutkin and Reynolds’s (1980) Norming of the Selz and Reitan Index of Neurological Dysfunction 219
Reliability of Neuropsychological Measures 223
Variance Definitions of Reliability and Validity 223
Calculating and Reporting Reliability 224
Scaling Problems in Neuropsychological Testing 225
RL and RA 226
RQ 228
Ratios and Quotients 229
Standard or Scaled Scores 229
Differential Diagnosis: Determining Membership in Clinical Populations 231
Some Statistical Considerations 231
The Willson and Reynolds Examples of Classification Problems 233
Profile Reliability 236
Sensitivity, Specificity, Diagnostic Accuracy, and Positive/Negative Predictive Value 237
Summary 238
References 239
Models of Inference in Evaluating Brain-Behavior Relationships in Children 243
Introduction 243
Basic Issues of Clinical Inference 243
Clinical-Inferential Methods 243
Levels of Inference 244
Fundamentals of Hypothesis Formation: The Logic of Strong Inference 245
Clinical Judgment in Neuropsychology 247
Summary of Basic Issues 248
Models of Inference in Child Neuropsychology 248
The Inferential Context of Child Neuropsychology 248
Assessment Methods in Child Neuropsychology 249
Quantitative Inferences in Child Neuropsychology 250
Qualitative Inferences in Child Neuropsychology 250
Inferential Fallacies in Child Neuropsychology 251
Summary 253
References 253
Part 2: Neuropsychological Diagnosis 256
Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Batteries for Children 257
Validation Studies 257
Subtests from the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery for Children Ages 9-14 259
Category Test 259
Tactual Performance Test 259
Finger Tapping Test 259
Speech Sounds Perception Test 260
Seashore Rhythm Test 260
Trails A and B 260
Strength of Grip Test 260
Sensory-Perceptual Exam 260
Finger Localization Test 261
Fingertip Number Writing Test 261
Tactile Form Recognition Test 261
Aphasia Screening Test 261
Ordering Information 262
Subtests from the Reitan-Indiana Neuropsychological Test Battery for Children 5-8 262
Category Test 262
Tactual Performance Test 262
Finger Tapping Test 262
Speech Sounds Perception Test, Seashore Rhythm Test, Trails A and B 262
Marching Test 262
Strength of Grip 262
Sensory-Perceptual Exam (SPE) 262
Aphasia Screening Test 263
Color Form Test 263
Progressive Figures Test 263
Matching Pictures Test 263
Target Test 263
Matching Figures and Matching V’s Test 263
Drawing of Star and Concentric Squares 264
Ordering Information 264
Normative Analysis of Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test for Children 264
Interpretation of Children’s Performance on Neuropsychological Batteries 267
Level of Performance 268
Pathognomonic Signs 268
Patterns of Performance 268
Comparison of Right and Left Body Sides 269
Multiple Inferential Approach 269
Rules Approach 269
Neuropsychological Deficit Scale 269
Biobehavioral Approach 269
Pragmatic Approach 270
Applications 271
Summary 273
References 274
The Nebraska Neuropsychological Children’s Battery 277
Development of the Battery 277
Description of the Battery 278
Interpretation 279
Levels of Interpretation 279
Identifying Brain Damage 280
Use of the Critical Level 280
Interpreting Scale Patterns 281
Factors Affecting Scale Interpretation 281
Developmental Issues in Interpretation 282
Clinical Scales 282
Qualitative Analysis 287
Personality 287
Prior History 288
Updated Approach to Qualitative Scoring 288
Interpretation 289
Conclusions 290
References 290
Applications of the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition in Neuropsychological AssessmentThe second author, R. W. Kamphaus, wishes to disclose a potential conflict of interest. He studied with Dr. Alan Kaufman when a graduate student at the University of Georgia and, later, he served as project director for the original K-ABC for the test’s publisher. 291
Overview 291
History 291
Theoretical Framework 292
Research with Pediatric Samples 293
Test Overview 294
Psychometric Properties 295
Standardization 296
Reliability 296
Validity 297
Correlations with Other Measures of Intelligence 298
Demographic Group Differences 299
Performance of Clinical Groups 299
Administration 301
Interpretation 302
Conclusions 304
Strengths 304
Weaknesses 305
References 305
Clinical Neuropsychological Assessment with the Test of Memory and Learning, Second Edition 307
Basic Neurobiology of Memory 309
TOMAL-2 310
TOMAL-2 Subtests 310
Standardization 312
Reliability 312
Validity 312
Factor Structure of the TOMAL-2 312
Cross-Ethnic Stability of Factor Indexes 316
Forward Versus Backward Recall 318
Delayed Recall 320
Ethnic Differences in Mean Levels of Performance 320
Interpretive Strategies 320
Brief Case Examples 321
Conclusion 325
References 327
Utilizing a Neuropsychological Paradigm for Understanding Common Educational and Psychological Tests 330
Why Consider a Neuropsychological Perspective? 331
Approaches to Neuropsychological Assessment 332
Quantitative Standardized Approaches 332
Qualitative Clinical Approaches 333
An Integrative Flexible Battery Model 334
Basic Assumptions 334
The Flexible Battery Approach 334
Areas the Evaluation Should Encompass 336
The Evaluation-Intervention Link 337
Interview and Generation of Assessment Plan 338
Developmental History 338
Perceptual/Sensory and Motor Functions 338
Perceptual/Sensory Functions 338
Motor Functions 339
Cognitive/Intellectual Functioning 340
Academic Achievement 346
Communication/Language Skills 348
Attention/Learning/Processing 349
Personality Variables 350
Conclusions 353
References 353
Assessment of Behavior and Personality in the Neuropsychological Diagnosis of Children 358
Neuropsychology of Emotions 359
Childhood Psychopathology from a Neuropsychological-Neuropsychiatric View 360
The Role and Development of Frontal Lobes in Children 361
Evidence from Childhood Psychopathology 362
Evidence from TBI 362
The Role of the Right and Left Hemispheres 364
Externalizing Disorders of Childhood 365
ADHD 365
Neuropsychology of ADHD 368
Conduct Disorder 370
Internalizing Disorders of Childhood 372
Childhood Depression 373
Childhood Anxiety 374
Conclusions 375
Specific Assessment Methods 375
Parent Rating Scales 375
Behavior Assessment System for Children-Second Edition Parent Rating Scales (BASC-2-PRS) (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004)
Conners’ Parent Rating Scale-Revised (CPRS-R) (Conners, 1997) 376
Teacher Ratings 378
Behavior Assessment System for Children-Second Edition Teacher Rating Scales (BASC-2-TRS) (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2004)
Conners’ Teacher Rating Scales-Revised (CTRS-R) (Conners, 1997) 379
Teacher’s Report Form (TRF Achenbach &
Student Behavior Survey (SBS)(Lachar, Wingenfeld, Kline, & Gruber, 2000)
Devereux Behavior Rating Scale-School Form (DBRS-SF) (Naglieri et al., 1993) 380
Conclusions Regarding Parent and Teacher Rating Scales 380
Integrating Psychological-Behavioral Assessment Findings into Neuropsychological Evaluation Results 381
Identify Neuropsychological Assets and Deficits 381
Identify Comorbid Disorders 382
Identify the Developmental Course of the Disorder 382
Identify Child Competencies 383
Identify Ecological Factors 383
References 383
Psychophysiological Evaluation of Neuropsychological Disorders in Children 391
Introduction 391
Developmental Learning Disorders 392
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) 399
Childhood Autism 400
Conclusion 402
References 402
The Assessment of the Hispanic Child 408
The Assessment of the Hispanic Child 408
A Brief Look at Current and Future Statistics on Hispanics 409
Race, Ethnicity, Culture, and the Assessment of the Hispanic Child 411
Ethical Issues and the Assessment of the Hispanic Child 412
Neuropsychological Assessment of the Hispanic Child: Special Topics 413
Education 413
Poverty/SES 415
Literacy 415
Occupational Status 415
Housing 416
Health 416
Perceptions and Bias 417
Acculturation 418
Language 419
Genetics: A Bridge Eliminating the Chasm Between Culture and Brain 420
The Assessment of Hispanic Children: Pragmatic Assessment Issues 421
Cultural Competency 423
Multicultural Diagnostic Considerations During Neuropsychological Assessment 424
Conclusions 425
References 427
Part 3: Techniques of Intervention 432
Neurocognitive Interventions for Childhood and Adolescent Disorders: A Transactional ModelPortions of this chapter are adapted from Teeter, P.A., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2007). Child Clinical Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders of Childhood, New York. Copyright Springer. Adapted with permission.
Theoretical Orientations for the Study of Childhood Disorders 434
Neuropsychological Component 434
Behavioral Component 435
Psychosocial and Cognitive Components 436
A Transactional Neuropsychological Paradigm for the Assessment and Treatment of Childhood Disorders 437
Models Linking Assessment to Interventions 438
Multistage Neuropsychological Model 438
Developmental Neuropsychological Remediation/Rehabilitation Model 440
The Reitan Evaluation of Hemispheric Abilities and Brain Improvement Training (REHABIT) 441
Phenomenological Model for Educational Interventions 441
Neuropsychological Orientations for Remediation 442
Attacking Neurocognitive Deficits 442
Teaching to Neurocognitive Strengths 442
Combined Treatment Programs 443
Disorders of Childhood: Implications for Remediation 443
Reading Disabilities: Phonological Core Deficits 443
Intervention Strategies 445
Nonverbal Learning Disabilities 445
Intervention Strategies 445
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 447
Intervention Strategies 448
Pervasive Developmental Disorders 448
Intervention Strategies 448
Seizure Disorders 448
Intervention Strategies 448
Traumatic Brain Injury 449
Intervention Strategies 449
Brain Tumors 449
Intervention Strategies 449
Interventions for Associated Cognitive-Academic, Psychosocial, Executive Function, and Attentional Problems 450
Strategies for Cognitive and Academic Difficulties 450
Strategies for Reading Disorders 450
Phonological Awareness Training 450
Comprehension Strategies 450
Computer and Speech Feedback 451
Whole Language Programs 452
Strategies for Written Language Disorders 452
Strategies for Math Disorders 452
Strategies for Deficits in Executive Functions: Planning and Organizational Skills 452
Strategies for Social Skills Deficits 453
Classroom and Behavior Management Strategies 454
Self-Management/Self-Control Techniques 454
Home-Based Contingencies 454
Peer Tutoring 454
Psychopharmacological Interventions 455
Specific Classes of Medication 455
Monitoring Medication 455
Pharmacological/Behavioral Interventions 458
Home-School-Physician Partnerships 459
Summary and Conclusions 459
References 459
Brain Injury Rehabilitation of Children and Youth: Neurodevelopmental Perspectives 465
Introduction 465
Historical Development of Clinical Neuropsychology and Brain Injury 467
Neuropsychology and Rehabilitation 469
Biomedical Versus Service Neuropsychological Delivery Paradigms 469
Models of Program Service Delivery 470
Psychosocial Aspects of Holistic Programs 474
Pediatric Versus Adult Programming for Individuals with Brain Injury 475
Age of Injury 475
Assessment 477
Developmental Stage 480
Stage of Recovery 480
Modalities of Treatment 482
Family Involvement 483
Reentry Issues 484
Program Evaluation 485
Outcome Measurement 487
The Pediatric Rehabilitation Milieu 488
Interdisciplinary Versus Multidisciplinary Rehabilitation Treatment Teams 489
The Neurodevelopmental Model of Pediatric Brain Injury Rehabilitation 490
Stage 1: Engagement 492
Stage 2: Awareness 494
Stage 3: Mastery 496
Stage 4: Control 496
Stage 5: Acceptance 497
Stage 6: Identity 498
Family-Centered Treatment in the Community 498
Summary and Conclusions 500
References 501
The Neuropsychology of Pediatric Epilepsy and Antiepileptic Drugs 510
Epilepsy and Cognitive Processes 512
Epilepsy and General Intelligence 512
Neuropsychological Model of Brain Functioning 512
Effects of Epilepsy on Specific Cognitive Processes 514
Sensory Input 514
Attention and Concentration 515
Learning and Memory 515
Language Skills 516
Perceptual-Motor Skills 517
Executive Functions 517
Motor Output 518
Neural Factors Underlying Cognitive Deficits 518
Etiology of the Seizure Disorder 518
Seizure Type and Frequency 519
Age at Onset and Duration of Disorder 520
Intellectual and Cognitive Effects of AEDs 521
Phenobarbital 522
Primidone 522
Phenytoin 523
Ethosuximide 523
Valproic Acid (Sodium Valproate) 523
Carbamazepine 523
Felbamate 524
Gabapentin 524
Lamotrigine 525
Vigabatrin 525
Nonmedication Alternative Treatments 526
Surgical Treatment 526
Behavioral Treatment 527
Dietary Treatment 527
References 528
Neuropsychological Effects of Stimulant Medication on Children’s Learning and Behavior 534
Historical Overview and Evolving Research 534
Prevalence 535
Pharmacology 535
Action Mechanism 535
Types of Stimulants 536
Methylphenidate (MPH) 536
Dextroamphetamine 538
Amphetamine (d- and 1-Amphetamine Racemic Mixture) 538
Pemoline 538
Other Stimulant Agents 538
Comparative Clinical Trials 538
Administration and Dose Response 539
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 541
Learning Disabilities 548
Conduct Disorders 549
Mental Retardation 550
Acquired Neurological Conditions 552
Tourette’s Syndrome 554
Depression in Medically Ill Groups 556
Developmental Issues 556
Preschoolers 556
Adolescents 557
Adults 558
Issues of Assessment 558
Physiological Correlates 558
Learning 561
Behavioral Correlates 561
Psychological Testing 562
Limitations of Stimulants 563
Iatrogenic and Emanative Effects 563
Psychosocial Attitudes and Beliefs About Medication 565
Long-Term Outcome of Children Treated with Stimulants 566
Growth Suppression 567
Cardiac System 567
Addiction 568
Multimodal Therapies 568
Training Issues 570
Concluding Comments 570
Note 571
References 571
Nonstimulant Psychotropic Medication: Desired and Adverse Cognitive Events 586
Adverse Events 586
Psychopharmacology with Children 588
Overview of Nonstimulant Psychotropic Drugs 588
Antipsychotic Medications 589
Antidepressants 593
Antimania Drugs 595
Antianxiety Drugs 596
Antiseizure Drugs 597
Antiparkinsonian Agents 597
Summary 597
References 597
Part 4: Special Topics in Clinical Child Neuropsychology 602
Child Clinical Neuropsychology of Drug AbuseSections of this chapter have been adapted and updated from, ‘‘Horton, A. M., Jr. (1996) Neuropsychology of drug abuse. In R. J. Sbordone and C. J. Long (Eds.) Ecological validity of neuropsychological testing (pp. 357-368) Delray Beach, Fla.: GR Press/St. Lucie Press.’’ 603
Introduction 603
Overview 605
Brain Structures and Processes Underlying Addictive Behaviors 605
Psychoactive Substance Abuse Research Issues 611
Marijuana/Cannabis 613
Hallucinogens/LSD 614
Ecstasy 614
Opiates 614
Sedatives 615
Phencyclidine (PCP) 615
Cocaine 615
Stimulants 615
Inhalants/Solvents 616
Polydrug Abuse 616
Summary 616
References 617
Neuropsychological Aspects of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 620
Toward a Working Definition of ADHD 621
The Genetics and Etiology of ADHD 623
Developmental Course and Comorbidity 625
Neuropsychological Impairments in ADHD 627
Evaluation 628
Treatment 629
Summary 630
References 630
Neurobehavioral and Neurodevelopmental Sequelae Associated with Pediatric HIV Infection 637
Basic Concepts, Terminology, and Diagnostic Nomenclature 638
American and Global Pediatric HIV Epidemiology 640
Basic Virology and Immunology of HIV Infection in Children 641
Virology 642
Immunology 642
Neurological, Neuroimaging, and Neuropathological Findings in Pediatric HIV-1 643
Neurological Findings 643
Findings from Neuroimaging Studies 645
Neuropathological Features 646
Electrophysiological Findings 648
Findings from Other CNS Biological Correlates 648
Neurodevelopmental and Neurobehavioral Sequelae Associated Pediatric HIV-1 Infection 648
Emerging Neurodevelopment and Intellectual Functioning 649
Attention and Concentration 654
Memory 655
Expressive Language Functions and Auditory Processing 655
Motor Functioning and Processing Speed 656
Academic Achievement 657
Adaptive and Neurobehavioral Considerations 657
Neurodevelopment and Pharmacological Treatments 659
Diagnostic, Surveillance, and Rehabilitative Issues 661
Summary and Putative Directions for Future Research 662
References 664
Neuropsychological Sequelae of Chronic Medical Disorders in Children and Youth 672
Introduction 672
The Brain and CNS 673
Infections of the CNS 673
Periventricular Brain Injury (PVBI) 675
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) 676
Chronic Granulomatous Disease 677
Brain Tumors 677
Neuromuscular Diseases 678
Other CNS Disorders 679
Leukodystrophy 680
Blood and Circulatory System 680
Anemia 680
Polycythemia Vera 681
Excessive Increases or Decreases in Platelets 681
Leukemia 682
Endocrine System 683
Diabetes Mellitus 683
Kidney Disease 689
Cardiovascular System 690
CNS Effects 690
Cardiac Arrest 692
Congenital Heart Disease Surgery 692
Lymphatic and Connective Tissue Systems 692
Spleen 692
Lymph Vessels 692
Disorders of the Connective Tissue System 692
CNS Effects 693
CNS Effects of Liver Dysfunction 693
Respiratory System 694
Bronchial Asthma 694
Cystic Fibrosis 695
Sleep Apnea (Snoring) 696
Central Nervous System Infection 696
Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia 697
References 697
Coping and Adjustment of Children with Neurological Disorder 704
Introduction 704
General Systems and Developmental Models 705
Coping and Adjustment 706
Cautions 706
Societal Influence on Coping and Adjustment 707
Making Meaning of Neurological Disorder 708
Words, Words, Words-Hamlet, Act II, Scene ii 708
Facts Are the Enemy of Truth-Man of La Mancha 711
Defense or Coping? 711
Perception of Competence 712
Attributions 714
Issues in Psychotherapy 715
Psychosocial Adjustment 716
Psychiatric Symptomatology 717
Self-Concept and Self-Esteem 718
Socialization 718
Independence and Autonomy 719
Impact on the Family 720
Stages of Family Growth 720
Stages of Parental Adjustment 721
Parental Differences in Coping Style 722
Dyadic Relationships 723
Siblings 723
Discussion 724
References 724
Child Forensic Neuropsychology: A Scientific Approach 730
Child Forensic Neuropsychology: A Scientific Approach 730
The Scientist-Practitioner: Familiarity with the Scientific Research 734
Consideration of the Other Sides of the Coin 737
Malnutrition 739
Disease 739
Toxic Agents 739
Perinatal Injury 739
Intellectual-Social Stimulation 740
Within a Reasonable Degree of Neuropsychological Certainty 740
Causation 740
Prognosis 741
Concluding Remarks 741
References 742
Neuropsychology and Coma Management 745
Levels of Consciousness 745
Coma Assessment Measures 747
Coma/Near Coma Scale 748
Clinical Use of Medication in Disorders of Consciousness 750
Treatment Effects 752
Neuroimaging and Electrophysiological Techniques 753
Computed Tomography (CT) 753
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Functional MRI (fMRI) 753
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and Functional PET (fPET) 753
Electroencephalography (EEG) 754
Evoked Potentials 754
Event-Related Potentials (ERPs) 754
Prognosis 755
Outcome Measures 757
Parent Education 758
Conclusion 759
Ethical Considerations 759
References 759
Neuropsychological Aspects of Pervasive Developmental and Autism Spectrum Disorders 764
Diagnostic Criteria 764
Differential Diagnosis 765
Asperger’s Disorder 765
Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Not Otherwise Specified 765
Rett Syndrome 766
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder 766
Neuropsychological Theories of Autism 766
The Limbic System Hypothesis 766
The Weak Central Coherence Hypothesis 767
Executive Function Hypothesis 767
Theory of Mind Hypothesis 768
Neuropsychological Profiles of Persons with Autism Spectrum Disorder 768
Language Domain 768
Intellectual Domain 769
Memory Domain 771
Attention Domain 772
Executive Function Domain 773
The Role of Lateralization in Autism 774
Neuropsychological Profiles of Persons with Other Pervasive Developmental Disorders 774
Asperger’s Disorder 774
Rett Syndrome 775
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder 775
Summary and Conclusion 776
References 776
Using the Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, Successive (PASS) Theory Within a Neuropsychological Context 781
Introduction 781
From Neuropsychology Theory to Assessment 781
Three Functional Units Described 782
Functional Units: Interactions and Influences 783
From the Three Functional Units to the PASS Theory 784
Operationalization and Application of the Theory 785
Validity 786
Relationship to Achievement 786
Relationship to Behavior 787
Fairness 787
Diagnostic Utility of PASS 788
Diagnostic Utility in Specific Populations 788
Reading Disability 789
Treatment Validity 790
PREP 790
Planning Strategy Instruction 791
Sample Cases 792
Case I: Ryan’s Problem with Planning 792
Case II: Jessica’s Problems with Simultaneous Processing 794
Conclusions 796
References 796
Index 799