Wittgenstein: Rules, Grammar and Necessity

G. P. Baker was a Fellow of St John's College, Oxford from 1967 until his death in 2002. He is the co-author with P.M.S. Hacker of the first two volumes of the four-volume Analytical Commentary on the Philosophical Investigations (Blackwell, 1980-96), author of Wittgenstein, Frege and the Vienna Circle (Blackwell, 1988) and, with Katherine Morris, of Descartes' Dualism (1996). He also wrote numerous articles on Wittgenstein, Frege, Russell, Waismann and Descartes. P. M. S. Hacker is the leading authority on the philosophy of Wittgenstein. He is author of the four-volume Analytical Commentary on the Philosophical Investigations , the first two volumes co-authored with G.P. Baker (Blackwell, 1980-96) and of Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth-century Analytic Philosophy (Blackwell, 1996). His recent works include The Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience (Blackwell, 2003) and History of Cognitive Neuroscience (Wiley-Blackwell, 2008), both co-authored with M. R. Bennett. Most recently he has published Human Nature: The Categorial Framework (Blackwell, 2007), the first volume of a trilogy on human nature. Together with Joachim Schulte, he has produced the 4 th edition and extensively revised translation of Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations (Wiley-Blackwell, 2009).

About the Authors ix Acknowledgements x Introduction to Volume 2 xii Abbreviations xvi ANALYTICAL COMMENTARY 1 I Two fruits upon one tree 3 1. The continuation of the Early Draft into philosophy of mathematics 3 2. Hidden isomorphism 7 3. A common methodology 12 4. The flatness of philosophical grammar 19 FOLLOWING A RULE §§185--242 23 Introduction to the exegesis 25 II Rules and grammar 41 1. The Tractatus and rules of logical syntax 41 2. From logical syntax to philosophical grammar 43 3. Rules and rule-formulations 46 4. Philosophy and grammar 55 5. The scope of grammar 59 6. Some morals 65 Exegesis §§185--8 68 III Accord with a rule 81 1. Initial compass bearings 81 2. Accord and the harmony between language and reality 83 3. Rules of inference and logical machinery 88 4. Formulations and explanations of rules by examples 90 5. Interpretations, fitting and grammar 93 6. Further misunderstandings 95 Exegesis §§189--202 98 IV Following rules, mastery of techniques, and practices 135 1. Following a rule 135 2. Practices and techniques 140 3. Doing the right thing and doing the same thing 145 4. Privacy and the community view 149 5. On not digging below bedrock 156 V Private linguists and 'private linguists' -- Robinson Crusoe sails again 157 1. Is a language necessarily shared with a community of speakers? 157 2. Innate knowledge of a language 158 3. Robinson Crusoe sails again 160 4. Solitary cavemen and monologuists 163 5. Private languages and 'private languages' 165 6. Overview 166 Exegesis §§203--37 169 VI Agreement in definitions, judgements and forms of life 211 1. The scaffolding of facts 211 2. The role of our nature 215 3. Forms of life 218 4. Agreement: consensus of human beings and their actions 223 Exegesis §§238--42 231 VII Grammar and necessity 241 1. Setting the stage 241 2. Leitmotifs 245 3. External guidelines 258 4. Necessary propositions and norms of representation 262 5. Concerning the truth and falsehood of necessary propositions 270 6. What necessary truths are about 280 7. Illusions of correspondence: ideal objects, kinds of reality and ultra-physics 283 8. The psychology and epistemology of the a priori 289 (i) Knowledge 289 (ii) Belief 291 (iii) Certainty 294 (iv) Surprise 298 (v) Discoveries and conjectures 300 (vi) Compulsion 305 9. Propositions of logic and laws of thought 308 10. Alternative forms of representation 320 11. The arbitrariness of grammar 332 12. A kinship to the non-arbitrary 338 13. Proof in mathematics 345 14. Conventionalism 356 Index 371