Embodied Carbon in Buildings (eBook)

Dr Francesco Pomponi is the Vice Chancellor’s Research Fellow at the Institute for Sustainable Construction of Edinburgh Napier University. Francesco’s expertise lies with life cycle assessment, embodied carbon, and circular economy and he moved to academia after six years in industry as an engineer and project manager. He is part of the newly launched Annex 72 of the International Energy Agency and has recently chaired the ‘Life Cycle Assessment and Carbon Accounting’ Forum of the International Passive and Low Energy Architecture conference and the ‘Design for Sustainability’ Track of the International Sustainable Development Research Society conference. He is a Fellow of the RSA, a member of the IET, and an Associate Fellow of the HEA. An associate member of St Edmund's College University of Cambridge and of Cambridge Architectural Research (CAR), Francesco regularly collaborates with practitioners and researchers from South and Central America, South Africa, Europe, and of course the UK.Dr Catherine De Wolf is a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL) cofounded by the Marie Sklodowska-Curie Postdoctoral Fellowships from the European Commission and a Swiss Government Excellence Scholarship, where she works on low carbon structural design within the Structural Xploration Lab. She also worked as a researcher at the University of Cambridge while obtaining her PhD in Building Technology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), after studying both civil engineering and architecture at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Université Libre de Bruxelles. She closely collaborated with leading engineering firms including Arup, Ney & Partners, and Thornton Tomasetti on embodied carbon assessment in buildings. This led to her nomination on the board of the Carbon Leadership Forum and the launch of the Structural Engineers 2050 Commitment Initiative. Dr Alice Moncaster is a Senior Lecturer in Engineering at the Open University. She remains a Visiting Fellow at the University of Cambridge, where she was previously a Lecturer in Engineering and Director of the IDBE masters course, and a Fellow of Newnham College. The move to academia followed ten years in industry as a civil/structural engineer, during which time she became increasingly concerned about the responsibility of the construction sector for climate change. Alice’s research focuses on reducing the ecological impacts of the built environment. She led the research group Cambridge University Built Environment Sustainability (CUBES) as part of the Centre for Sustainable Development at Cambridge between 2010-17, and has been the UK participating expert on the International Energy Agency Annex 57, and now Annex 72, since 2012.

Foreword 6
The Editors 8
Introduction 10
Contents 13
Contributors 16
Part I: Measurement 20
Chapter 1: Uncertainty Analysis in Embodied Carbon Assessments: What Are the Implications of Its Omission? 21
Introduction 21
Uncertainty in LCA 22
Types of Uncertainty 24
Approaches to Deal with Uncertainties in LCA 24
LCAs of Buildings with Uncertainty Analysis 25
The Inclusion of Uncertainty Analysis in LCAs 28
Illustration Case Implementation 28
Results 29
Discussion 34
Conclusion 35
References 36
Chapter 2: Probabilistic Approaches to the Measurement of Embodied Carbon in Buildings 40
Introduction 40
Sources of Uncertainty 41
Representation of Uncertainty 43
Current Measurement 43
Life Cycle Measurement 46
Tree Representations 48
Monte Carlo Simulation 49
Decision-Making Under Uncertainty 50
Risk Aversion 50
Time Preference 52
Sensitivity Analysis 53
Measurement and Decision Making 54
Flexible Strategies 55
Worked Example 58
Introduction 58
Basis for Measurement 58
System Boundaries and Assumptions 59
Framing the Life Cycle Model 59
Data 59
Method of Measurement: Deterministic Analysis 60
Method of Measurement: Probabilistic Analysis 61
Results: Deterministic Analysis 61
Results: Probabilistic Analysis 62
Sensitivity Analysis 64
Conclusions 65
References 66
Chapter 3: Uncertainty Assessment of Comparative Design Stage Embodied Carbon Assessments 68
Introduction 68
Review of Uncertainty Literature 69
Identifying Relevant Sources of Uncertainty 73
Method 74
Scope of the Uncertainty Assessment 75
Eliciting Expert Judgements of Uncertainty for Steel and Timber 75
Elicited Statistical Uncertainties 77
Elicited Scenario Uncertainties 77
Steel 77
Timber 81
Case Study: Steel Vs. Glulam Structural Frame 81
Scope and Boundaries 82
Case Study Results 84
Discussion 88
Conclusions and Further Work 90
References 91
Chapter 4: Embodied Carbon of Wood and Reinforced Concrete Structures Under Chronic and Acute Hazards 94
Introduction 94
EC Accounting Methodologies 95
Quantifying the EC of Buildings Under Chronic Hazards 97
Reinforced Concrete 98
Chloride-Induced Corrosion 98
Freeze-Thaw Deterioration 100
Sulfate Attack 101
Carbonation-Induced Corrosion and Carbon Sequestration 101
Shrinkage and Creep 103
Wood and Engineered Wood 104
TimberLife: Service-Life Prediction Software 105
Quantifying the EC of Buildings Under Acute Hazards 106
Overview 106
A Review of Loss-Estimation Methodologies 107
Quantifying EC by Extending Loss-Estimation Methodologies 108
Exemplifying the Calculation of EC 109
Reinforced Concrete Buildings 110
Wood-Frame Buildings 111
Conclusions 114
References 115
Chapter 5: Embodied Carbon of Surfaces: Inclusion of Surface Albedo Accounting in Life-Cycle Assessment 121
Introduction 121
Aim of the Research and Methodology 123
Land-Use and Land-Cover Changes and Surface Albedo 124
Surface Albedo and the Building Sector 128
Discussion 133
Conclusions 133
References 134
Chapter 6: Quantifying Environmental Impacts of Structural Material Choices Using Life Cycle Assessment: A Case Study 139
Life Cycle Assessment: History and Limitations 139
LCA Software Used for Study 142
Case Study Parameters 142
Tally Results and Observations 146
Limitations of This Study 150
Data Set Limitations and Findings 150
Software and Database Limitations 151
Parameter Limitations 151
Structural Design Limitations 151
Conclusions 152
Appendix A: Material Quantity Tables for Four Design Schemes 153
References 158
Chapter 7: Analysis of Embodied Carbon in Buildings Supported by a Data Validation System 159
Introduction 159
Literature Review 160
LCA Approaches 161
LCA Studies in Buildings 161
LCA Studies on Embodied Carbon 162
Data Quality 163
Methodology 164
Data Validation System in LCA Studies 165
Goal and Scope 166
Life Cycle Inventory 167
Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) 168
Evaluation of the Model with a Case Study 171
Goal and Scope 171
Life Cycle Inventory 173
Life Cycle Assessment 175
Interpretation 175
Conclusion 177
References 178
Part II: Management 181
Chapter 8: Embodied Carbon Tools for Architects and Clients Early in the Design Process 182
Introduction 182
Environmental Assessment Early in the Design Process 183
Building Geometry Calculation 186
Geometric Input Parameters 187
Extent of Primary Building Elements 189
Building and Material Lifespan 192
Lifespan of Materials 192
Lifespan of Buildings 193
Parametric Variation of Building Elements 194
Constructive Variations 194
Lifespan Variations 194
Embodied Carbon Calculation 197
Inventory Data 197
Calculation Procedure 198
LCA Profile Tool 199
Building Geometry 199
Building Elements 200
Simplified Vs. Detailed Building LCA 201
Precision of the Simplified Embodied Carbon Design Tool 201
Conclusion 203
References 203
Chapter 9: Embodied Carbon Research and Practice: Different Ends and Means or a Third Way 206
Introduction 206
Aim 207
Background 208
Observations and Informal Correspondence 208
Embodied Carbon and Life Cycle Assessments 208
Building and Product Assessments 208
Literature 209
Parts of the Life Cycle Assessment Standards and Guides 209
Assessment Meta-research: Reviews and Meta-studies 209
Taxonomies 210
Method 210
Articulating the Questions Posed by Assessment 211
Developing the Taxonomy 212
Communicating the Taxonomy 214
Using the Taxonomy 214
Identifying Candidate Cases of Assessment 215
Identifying Extreme Cases of Assessment 216
Established Guiding Principles 216
Results 216
C-Oriented Assessments Produced by Researchers 219
A-Oriented Assessments Produced by Researchers 219
C-Oriented Assessments Produced by the Author as Practitioner 221
A-Oriented Assessments Produced by the Author as Practitioner 221
Discussion 222
Range Produced by Researchers 223
Range Produced by the Author as Practitioner 224
A Third Way? 224
Other Recommendations 225
Limitations 226
Further Work 227
Conclusion 228
References 229
Chapter 10: Embodied Carbon in Construction, Maintenance and Demolition in Buildings 231
Introduction 231
Literature Review 232
Problems of Waste 232
Waste Definition and Composition 233
International Policies and Regulations 235
Building Lifecycle and the Associated Waste 237
Estimation Methods 239
Construction Process (A4-5) 243
Use Stage (B2-5) 244
End-of-Life Stage (C1-4) 246
Mitigation Methods 247
Challenges and Barriers 249
The Case Study 250
Results 253
Discussion 254
Conclusion 255
References 256
Chapter 11: Carbon and Cost Hotspots: An Embodied Carbon Management Approach During Early Stages of Design 260
Introduction 260
A Review of Studies on Embodied Carbon 261
Identifying Carbon and Cost Hotspots 263
Analysis of Data 264
Implications 271
Conclusions 273
References 274
Part III: Mitigation 276
Chapter 12: Applying Circular Economic Principles to Reduce Embodied Carbon 277
Introduction 277
State of the Art 278
The Circular Economy in Construction 278
Building Reuse 280
Material Reuse 281
Design for Deconstruction and Material Reuse 281
Design for Adaptability 282
State-of-the-Art Conclusions 283
Research Design 283
Case Study Analysis 284
Building Reuse 284
Material Reuse 285
Design for Deconstruction and Material Reuse 287
Design for Adaptability 290
Adaptable Use 291
Discussion 291
Building Reuse 292
Material Reuse 292
Design for Deconstruction and Material Reuse 293
Design for Adaptability 293
Conclusion 294
References 295
Chapter 13: Embodied Carbon of Sustainable Technologies 298
Introduction 298
The LCA Standard 300
Results 302
Solar PV 302
Solar Thermal 303
Mechanical Ventilation with Heat Recovery (MVHR) 304
Air-Source Heat Pump (ASHP) 305
LED Lighting 306
Discussion 307
Conclusion 308
References 308
Chapter 14: Accounting for Embodied Carbon Emissions in Planning and Optimisation of Transport Activities During Construction 312
Introduction 312
Literature Review 315
Facility Layout Problem 315
Facility Location Problem 315
Container Loading Problem 316
Framework 316
Site Layout Planning Models 317
SCTL 318
MCTL 321
Container Loading Problem Model 322
Case Studies 324
Case 1 324
Case 2 326
Conclusion 328
References 328
Chapter 15: Design Strategies for Low Embodied Carbon in Building Materials 333
Introduction 333
Background 334
LCA of a Zero-Energy Building 338
Results 341
Reduction 341
Reuse and Recycling 342
Low Carbon 344
Local 345
Durability 346
Conclusion 347
References 348
Chapter 16: Embodied Carbon of Tall Buildings: Specific Challenges 350
Introduction 350
Where Is the Carbon? 352
The Influence of Urban Density 354
Carbon Over Time 355
Building Performance Objectives 360
Embodied Carbon Reductions Through Longevity 363
Earthquakes 363
Wind 364
Avoiding Obsolescence 368
Conclusion 370
References 371
Part IV: Approaches Across Global Regions 374
Chapter 17: Managing Embodied Carbon in Africa Through a Carbon Trading Scheme 375
Introduction 375
Need for Embodied Carbon Management in Africa 375
Carbon Trading Schemes: The CDM 376
Methods 378
Integrating EC in the Development Approval Process 378
Evaluation of the Procedure 378
Perceptions of Cost Implications of the Procedure 380
Perceptions of Distributional Considerations of the Procedure 380
Perceptions of Institutional Feasibility 381
Analysis of the Perceptions 381
Managing EC Using CDM 382
Measurement of Embodied Carbon 382
Manufacture and Transportation of Materials 383
Transportation of Workforce 383
Demonstration of the CDM 384
Basic Assumptions 384
Computation of EC 386
Results and Discussion 387
Professionals´ Perceptions on the Proposed Procedure 387
Overview of Responses 387
Cost Implications of the Procedure 388
Need for Institutions 388
Simplicity of the Procedure 389
Contribution to Other Benefits 389
Distributional Considerations of the Procedure 390
Willingness to Use the Procedure 390
Fairness of the Procedure 390
Transparency of the Procedure 390
Institutional Feasibility of the Procedure 391
Legal Acceptance 391
Compatibility with National Priorities 391
Persistence 392
Predictability 392
Overall Perception of the Procedure 392
EC of a Residential House 393
Baseline Option 393
Alternative Option 393
Managing EC Using CDM 394
Operation of the EC-CDM 394
Conclusions 396
References 397
Chapter 18: Embodied Carbon in Buildings: An Australian Perspective 401
Introduction 401
Data and Methods for Embodied Carbon Assessment in Australia 402
The Development of Embodied Carbon Data in Australia 402
Process Data 402
Environmentally Extended Input-Output (EEIO) Data 403
Hybrid Data 403
Embodied Carbon Assessment Methods: The Australian Contribution 404
Multi-region Input-Output Analysis 404
Path Exchange Hybrid Analysis (PXC) 405
Future Direction 408
The Role of Policy and Voluntary Certifications in Building Embodied Carbon Mitigation in Australia 408
Current Status 409
Towards Embodied Carbon Regulations for Australia 412
What Is the Australian Construction Industry Doing to Reduce Embodied Carbon? 413
The State of Embodied Carbon Assessment in Australia´s Construction Industry 414
5x4 Hayes Lane Project, Melbourne 415
Forte, Melbourne 416
Melbourne School of Design, Melbourne 416
Barangaroo, Sydney 417
Current Barriers and Future Direction 418
Conclusions 419
References 420
Chapter 19: Current Approaches for Embodied Carbon Assessment of Buildings in China: An Overview 425
Introduction 425
Literature Review 426
A Review of Carbon Assessment of Buildings from a Global Perspective 426
A Review of Carbon Assessment of Buildings in China 427
Current Policies and Industry Initiatives for Embodied Carbon Reduction 428
Current Methods Used in Embodied Carbon Assessment of Buildings 430
Embodied Carbon Assessment of Buildings from a Macro Perspective 430
National Level 430
Regional Level 432
Embodied Carbon Assessment of Buildings from a Micro Perspective 436
Process-Based LCA 437
Hybrid LCA 437
Uncertainty Analysis for Embodied Carbon Assessment of Buildings 439
Uncertainty in the I-O Analysis 439
Uncertainty in the Process-Based LCA Model 440
DQI Assessment Method 442
Contribution Analysis 444
Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS) 444
Conclusions 445
References 445
Chapter 20: Embodied Carbon Measurement, Mitigation and Management Within Europe, Drawing on a Cross-Case Analysis of 60 Build... 451
Introduction 451
Developing Conclusions from a Comparative Analysis of Multiple Case Studies 453
Measurement of Embodied Carbon and Energy in the Annex 57 European Case Studies 458
Approaches to Mitigation: Reducing Embodied Impacts of Buildings 461
European Approaches to the Management of Embodied Impacts 463
Standards and Regulations 464
Professional Initiatives as Drivers 466
Summary and Conclusions 467
References 468
Chapter 21: Initiatives to Report and Reduce Embodied Carbon in North American Buildings 471
Introduction 471
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Data and Tools for Buildings 472
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) 473
LCA Databases 475
Whole-building LCA Tools 477
Incentives to Reduce Embodied Carbon in North America 478
LEED Rating Scheme´s whole-building LCA Credit 479
Other Rating Schemes in North America 481
Architecture 2030 and Structural Engineers 2050 482
Benchmarking Databases 483
Database of Embodied Quantity Outputs (deQo) 483
Embodied Carbon Benchmark (ECB) Database 486
Summary 487
References 488
Chapter 22: Embodied and Life Cycle Carbon Assessment of Buildings in Latin America: State-of-the-Art and Future Directions 491
Introduction 491
Current Situation 492
Current Initiatives and Existing Policies 492
Initiatives in Colombia 493
Policies in Colombia 495
Available Data 497
Measures to Mitigate the Current Lack of Geographically Specific Data 500
Utilisation of Existing Data on Embodied Energy 500
Utilisation of Aggregated MRIO Data 503
Combination of the Two Measures in a Hybrid-LCA Fashion 505
Concluding Remarks and Future Directions 508
References 509
Index 512