Converging Media

John V. Pavlik is a professor in the Department of Journalism and Media Studies at the School of Communication and Information at Rutgers University. Pavlik is also a faculty associate at the Columbia Institute for Tele-Information (CITI). He is the former executive director of The Center for New Media at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, where he was also a professor. He has written many publications on the impact of new technology on journalism, media, and society. His books include Media in the Digital Age, published in 2008 by Columbia University Press and Journalism and New Media, published in 2001 by Columbia University Press. He has also authored more than a dozen computer software packages for education in journalism and communication and is co-developer of the Situated Documentary, a new form of storytelling using augmented reality. Shawn McIntosh is an assistant professor of English and Communication at the The College of Saint Rose. He studies how digital and social media have disrupted journalism and how journalism as a profession is responding to the challenges it faces from the perspectives of production, business models, and its role in a democratic society. I am also interested in looking at how strategic communications can be used for social change, especially in development contexts. Before teaching at The College of Saint Rose and the Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts, McIntosh taught a variety of courses at Columbia University School of Journalism.

CONTENTS
Preface
About the Authors

Part 1 The Changing Media Landscape
Chapter 1 Mass Communication and Its Digital Transformation
1.1 Telephony: Case Study in Convergence
1.2 Three Types of Convergence
Technological Convergence
Economic Convergence
Cultural Convergence
1.3 Implications of Convergence
Media Organization
Media Type
Media Content
Media Use
Media Distribution
Media Audience
Media Profession
Attitudes and Values
1.4 Mass Communication in the Digital Age
Interpersonal Communication
Mass Communication
Mass Communication and Convergence
1.5 Functions of Mass Communication
Surveillance
Correlation
Cultural Transmission
Entertainment
1.6 Television: The Future of Convergence
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
MEDIA PIONEERS: Oprah Winfrey
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Translating is Not Child's Play
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: The Reflective Black Mirror
ETHICS IN MEDIA: Do You Pay More if You Own a Mac?

Chapter 2 Media Literacy in the Digital Age
2.1 Education and Media
2.2 What Is Media Literacy?
2.3 What Makes Mediated Communication Different?
Semiotics
Framing
2.4 Early Concerns of Media Effects
2.5 Media Grammar
Print Media
Radio and Recorded Music
Film and Television
Digital-Media Grammar
2.6 Implications of Commercial Media
Commercial-Media Debate
Concentration of Media Ownership
2.7 Media Bias
2.8 Developing Critical Media-Literacy Skills
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
MEDIA PIONEERS: Marshall McLuhan
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Mobile Telephony in the Developing World
ETHICAL DEBATES: When Media Report Rape Allegations
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Evaluating Online Information

Chapter 3 Media Theory and Research
3.1 Role of Theory and Research
Mass Society, Mass Communication
3.2 Theories of Communication
Transmission Models
Critical Theory and Cultural Studies
3.3 Media-Effects Research
Propaganda and the Magic Bullet
Payne Fund
Radio's Wider Impact
Television and Violence
Limited Effects
Cultivation Analysis
Spiral of Silence
Third-Person Effect
Criticisms of Media-Effects Research
3.4 Understanding the Audience
Audiences Creating Meaning
Uses and Gratifications
Encoding/Decoding
Reception Analysis
Framing
3.5 Cultural Studies
Ideology and the Culture Industry
Criticisms of Cultural Studies
3.6 Sociohistorical Frameworks
Information Society
Political Economy
Media Ecology
Agenda Setting
3.7 New Directions in Media Research
3.8 Media Research: What Type of Science Is It?
Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Working Together
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Do FPS Games Cause Violence?
MEDIA PIONEERS: Nonny de la Peña
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: "A Habit of Being Right on the Things"
ETHICS IN MEDIA: Instagram and Body Image

Part 2 Mass-Communication Formats
Chapter 4 Print Media: BOOKS, NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES
4.1 Functions of Print Media
Transmission of Culture
Diffusion of Ideas and Knowledge
Entertainment
4.2 Distinctive Functions of Books
4.3 History of Books to Today
Monastic Scribes
Johannes Gutenberg
Beginnings of Mass Communication and Mass Literacy
Cheaper and Smaller Books
Dime Novels
Mass-Market Paperbacks
Print-on-Demand
Ebooks
4.4 Current Book-Industry Issues
4.5 Sales and Readership of Books
4.6 Outlook for Books
4.7 Distinctive Functions of Newspapers
Local Newspapers
National Newspapers
4.8 History of Newspapers to Today
The Commercial Press and the Partisan Press
Colonial Readership and Finances
The Golden Age of Newspapers
4.9 Current Newspaper-Industry Issues
Newspaper Chains
Benefits of Chains
Problems with Chains
Leading Newspaper Chains
Declining Number of Newspapers
4.10 Sales and Readership of Newspapers
Circulation and Readership
Advertising
4.11 Outlook for Newspapers
4.12 Distinctive Functions of Magazines
4.13 History of Magazines to Today
4.14 Current Magazine-Industry Issues
4.15 Sales and Readership of Magazines
4.16 Outlook for Magazines
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Have Ebooks Finally Gone Over the Great Wall in China?
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: When the Funnies Get Serious
MEDIA PIONEERS: Ruben Salazar

Chapter 5 Audio Media: MUSIC RECORDINGS, RADIO
5.1 The Recording Industry
5.2 Distinctive Functions of the Recording Industry
5.3 History of Recorded Music
From Tin Pan Alley to Hollywood
Roots of Rock and Roll
Redefining Rock
5.4 The Recording Industry Today
5.5 Recording-Industry Business Model
Creation
Promotion
Distribution
Pricing Structure
5.6 Outlook for the Recording Industry
Digital Rights Management and Illegal File Sharing
New Business Models Emerging
5.7 What Is Broadcasting?
5.8 Radio
5.9 Distinctive Functions of Radio
5.10 History of Radio
Wireless Telegraphy
Exploring Radio's Early Potential
Voice Transmission
Radio Before, During, and After WWI
Widespread Public Adoption of Radio
FM Radio, Edwin Howard Armstrong, and David Sarnoff
Creating a Viable Business Model for Radio
The Rise of Radio Networks
Consolidation in Radio Station Ownership
5.11 The Radio Industry Today
5.12 Radio Station Programming
5.13 Outlook for the Radio Industry
Podcasting
Satellite Radio
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
MEDIA PIONEERS: Lil Nas X
ETHICAL DEBATES: Mashed-Up and Mixed-Up Musical Ethics
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: NPR and PRI: America's Public Radio Networks
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Trusting in the Power of the Airwaves


Chapter 6 Visual Media: PHOTOGRAPHY, MOVIES, AND TELEVISION
6.1 Photography
History of Photography
Photographic Industry Today
6.2 Movies
6.3 History of the Movie Industry
Silent Era: New Medium, New Technologies, New Storytelling
Méliès,Griffith and Weber
Murnau, Flaherty, and Eisenstein
Sound and Color
Hollywood Movie Moguls
Warner Brothers
Walt Disney
Samuel Goldwyn
Marcus Loew
Louis B. Mayer
Hollywood Star System
The Director as Auteur
Technological Influences on Movie Genres
Other Entertainment Sources for Movies
DVDs And Streaming
6.4 Movie Industry Today
6.5 Marketing and Distribution for Movies
6.6 Movie-Industry Business Model
6.7 Outlook for the Movie Industry
6.8 Television
6.9 History of Television
Seeing the Light: The First Television Systems
Modern Television Takes Shape
Programming and Genre Influences
Pushing the Programming Envelope
Cable Comes of Age
Filling the Days
Filling the Nights
Sports
Reality Shows
Digital Television: Preparing the Way for Convergence
The Rise of Flat-Panel Displays
6.10 Television Distribution
Broadcast TV
Cable TV
Satellite TV
6.11 Television Industry Today
Cable System Structure
Satellite Versus Cable Versus IPTV
6.12 Television-Industry Business Model
6.13 Outlook for the Television Industry
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Breaking the Silence Around Molestation
DIGITAL DEBATES: The Photojournalist's Dilemma: Immersion in Conflict
MEDIA PIONEERS: Kathleen Kennedy
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Home Theater-Really, This Time

Chapter 7 Interactive Media: THE INTERNET, VIDEO GAMES, AND VIRTUAL REALITY
7.1 Interactivity Defined
7.2 Interactive Media Versus Mass Media
7.3 Historical Development of User Interfaces
Television Interfaces
Intuitive Interfaces
Keyboards
Computer Mouse
Touchscreens
Natural Input Methods
Graphical User Interfaces
7.4 Historical Development of the Internet and the World Wide Web
Internet Protocol
World Wide Web
Graphical Web Browsers
Search Engines
Broadband
Distribution Dynamics
7.5 Video Games
7.6 Historical Development of Video Games
7.7 Types of Video Games
7.8 Video-Game Industry
7.9 Trends in Video Games
7.10 Gamification
7.11 Virtual Reality
7.12 Ethics of Interactive Media
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Can the Internet Save Endangered Languages?
MEDIA PIONEERS: Hironobu Sakaguchi
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: What Do Video Games Do to You?
ETHICS IN MEDIA: Epic Games Epic Fines

Part 3 Media Perspectives
Chapter 8 The Impact of Social Media
8.1 Defining Social Media
Dialogic Communication
Social Production
8.2 What Is "Social" About Social Media?
Choice
Conversation
Curation
Creation
Collaboration
8.3 Types of Social Media
Email
Discussion Boards and Web Forums
Chat Rooms
Blogs and Microblogs
Wikis
Social-Networking Sites
8.4 Producers and Produsers
Reputation, Ratings, and Trust
Privacy
Transparency
8.5 Social Media: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
Are Social Media Making Us Less Social?
Are Social Media Making Us Dumber?
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Behind the Great Firewall
MEDIA PIONEERS: Jack Dorsey
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Are We Really Separated by Six Degrees?
ETHICS IN MEDIA: Cybershaming and Cyberbullying: New Twists on Old Problems


Chapter 9 Journalism: From Information to Participation
9.1 What Is News?
9.2 The Historical Development of Journalism
News Values and the Associated Press
Pulitzer and Hearst: The Circulation Wars, Sensationalism, and Standards
Joseph Pulitzer
William Randolph Hearst
The Rise of Electronic Journalism
Murrow and News in TV's Golden Age
Changes in Television News
9.3 Foundations of Journalism
The Hutchins Commission and a Free and Responsible Press
Separation of Editorial and Business Operations
Fairness and Balance in News Coverage
Framing the News
Expert Sources
9.4 From Event to Public Eye: How News Is Created
Gathering the News
Producing the News
Distributing the News
9.5 Types of Journalism
Alternative Journalism
Public Journalism
Citizen Journalism
Constructive Journalism
An International Perspective
9.6 Journalism in the Digital World
Nontraditional Sources
Online User Habits
Personalization
Contextualization
Convergence
9.7 The Business of Journalism
Salaries
Diversity in the Newsroom
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
MEDIA PIONEERS: Mary Ann Shadd Cary and Ida B. Wells
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: The Panama Papers
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Digital News Organizations Come into Their Own
ETHICS IN MEDIA: What is "Fake News," Exactly?

Chapter 10 Public Relations: Building Relationships Through Strategic Communications
10.1 Strategic Communications
Persuasive Communications
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
The Role of Media in Persuasion
10.2 Public Relations
The Historical Development of Public Relations
Trends in the Development of Public Relations
PR and Media Relations
Pseudo-Events
Distributing News to the Media in the Digital Age
Finding Sources Online
PR Firms and the PR Industry
10.3 Changing Trends in PR
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: PR Gets a Red Card at the World Cup
MEDIA PIONEERS: Doris E. Fleischman
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Hard Landing for the Airline Industry
ETHICS IN MEDIA: Fooling Most of the People Most of the Time . . . Digitally

Chapter 11 Advertising: THE POWER OF PERSUASION
11.1 Advertising
The Historical Development of Advertising
Advertising Agencies
Commercial Television
Internet
The Rise of Branding
Selling Products, Selling Ideas
Advertising Channels
Print Media
Electronic Media
Outdoor
Direct Mail
Advertising in a Digital World
Cookies
Email Marketing
Banner Ads
Pop-Ups and Video
Classifieds and Auction Sites
Search-Engine Ads
Mobile Advertising
In-Game Advertising
Behavioral Advertising
Viral Marketing
Native Advertising
The Advertising Business
Advertising Agencies
11.2 Changing Trends in Advertising
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
MEDIA PIONEERS: Madame C.J. Walker
ETHICS IN MEDIA: No Cure for Bad
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Content Marketing: Blurring the Line Between Journalism and Advertising?
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Does Marketing Affect What Drugs We Take?

Chapter 12 Media Ethics
12.1 Ethics, Morals, and Laws
12.2 Major Systems of Ethical Reasoning
Character, or Virtue Ethics
The Golden Rule
The Golden Mean
Virtue Ethics in Action
Duties
The Categorical Imperative
Discourse Ethics
Duties-Based Ethics in Action
Consequences
Utilitarianism
Social Justice
Consequence-Based Ethics in Action
Relationships, or Dialogical Ethics
Ethics of Care
Moral Relativism
12.3 Issues in Ethical Decision Making
12.4 Role of Commercialism in Media Ethics
Media Types Influencing Content
12.5 Ethics in Journalism
Privacy Rights Versus the Public's Right to Know
Going Undercover
Victimizing the Victims
Misrepresentation and Plagiarism
Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics
12.6 Ethical Issues in Advertising
Deceptive Advertising
Puffery
Conflicts of Interest in Advertising
Advertising Codes of Ethics
12.7 Ethics in Public Relations
Conflicts of Interest in PR
Public Relations Codes of Ethics
12.8 Ethics in Entertainment
Stereotypes in Entertainment
Sex and Violence
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Global Action: Uniting Women Worldwide Through Social Networks
ETHICAL DEBATES: Dialogical Ethics in Action
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Forbidden Fruit
MEDIA PIONEERS: Naomi Klein

Part 4 Media and Society
Chapter 13 Communication Law and Regulation in the Digital Age
13.1 The Legal Framework
13.2 The Foundations of Freedom of Expression
National Security
Clear and Present Danger
Prior Restraint
Libel
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964)
Protecting Journalists Against Libel
Shield Laws
Censorship
The Censorship of Comics
The Hays Code
Indecent Content
Obscenity
Criticism, Ridicule, or Humor
13.3 Regulating Electronic Media
Early Days and the Radio Act of 1912 (1911-1926)
Increasing Regulation and the Federal Radio Commission
(1927-1933)
The Communications Act and Spectrum Scarcity (1934-1995)
The Telecommunications Act and the Internet (1996-Present)
International Electronic Media Regulation
13.4 The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Universal Service
The FCC, License Renewal, and Regulatory Power
Spectrum Auction
13.5 Regulating Commercial and Political Speech
Commercial Speech
Tobacco, Alcohol, and Marijuana Advertising
Unclear Regulatory Boundaries
Political Speech
Equal-Time Rule
Fairness Doctrine
13.6 Children's Programming Protections
The Children's Television Act
Violent and Sexual Programming: The V-Chip
13.7 Intellectual Property Rights
Fair Use
13.8 Privacy
13.9 Legal Issues in the Digital World
Digital Rights Management
Privacy
Content Rights and Responsibilities
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
MEDIA PIONEERS: Andrew Chung, Lawrence Hurley, Andrea Januta, Jaimi Dowdell and Jackie Botts
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: The Great Network Neutrality Debate
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: The Rise and Fall of Russian Media
ETHICAL DEBATES: Does the Punishment Fit the Crime?

Chapter 14 Mass Communication and Politics in the Digital Age
14.1 Journalism and Political Coverage
Politicians Using the News
Sound Bites and Horse Races
The Changing Tone of Television Political Coverage
Opinion Polls
14.2 Political Advertising
Impact of Negative Advertising
Effectiveness of Negative Advertising
14.3 Politics and Entertainment
Political Campaigns and Entertainment
Political Debates
14.4 Social Media and Political Campaigns
Changes With Social Media
Changing Rules for Politicians
14.5 Social Media and Civic Engagement

Databases and Government Transparency
Smart Mobs
14.6 Political Polarization and Media Habits
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
ETHICAL DEBATES: Can Imagery Lead to Action?
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Super PACS and Media
INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES: Crowdsourcing Election Monitoring
MEDIA PIONEERS: Bill Adair

Chapter 15 Global Media in the Digital Age
15.1 Four Theories of International Mass Communication
Authoritarian Theory
Libertarian Theory
Social Responsibility Theory
Soviet Theory
15.2 The Public, the Public Sphere, and Public Opinion
15.3 Political and Socioeconomic Issues with Global Media
Media in Developing Countries
Searching for Truth: Self-Censorship in China
The Digital Divide
15.4 Global Media, Local Values
New Worlds-Or Cultural Imperialism?
Convergence and Its Discontents
Globalization of Media Production
Global Media Flow
Protecting Local Voices
Some Developing Nations
A Neighbo(u)ring Nation
Promoting Global Voices
Cybersecurity and Media
Media Careers
Looking Back and Moving Forward
FURTHER READING

Features
ETHICAL DEBATES: Humor and Ethics: The Role of Satire and Religion
CONVERGENCE CULTURE: Breaking News on a Global Scale
MEDIA PIONEERS: Steve Chen, Chad Hurley, and Jawed Karim


Glossary G-1
Notes N-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1