Exploring Occupant Behavior in Buildings (eBook)

Andreas Wagner is a professor of Building Physics and Building Services at the Faculty of Architecture and leads the Building Science Group at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany. William O’Brien is an associate professor and program advisor on Architectural Conservation and Sustainability Engineering at the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada. Bing Dong is an assistant professor and head of the Built Environment Science & Technology Lab at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at San Antonio, USA.

Foreword 5
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 8
Glossary 10
1 Introduction 28
Abstract 28
2 Occupancy and Occupants’ Actions 33
Abstract 33
2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 Categorization of Occupants’ Actions 36
2.3 Potential Triggers and Contextual Factors Influencing Occupant Behavior in a Building 39
2.4 Literature Review of Relationship Between Action Types and Influencing Factors 41
2.5 Conclusion 57
References 58
3 Designing Research 65
Abstract 65
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Why Do the Research (Research Aims and Questions) 67
3.3 Identifying the Concepts to Measure and How They Link Together (Theory) 69
3.3.1 Concepts 71
3.3.2 One to One Relationships (Links) 71
3.3.3 One to Many Relationships (Hierarchies) 72
3.4 Units of Analysis, Populations, and Scope 73
3.4.1 Units of Analysis 73
3.4.2 Population of Interest and Scope 73
3.4.3 Descriptive or Inferential Statistics 74
3.4.4 Required Precision 76
3.5 Sampling and Sample Size 77
3.5.1 Sample Frames 77
3.5.2 Sampling Strategies 77
3.5.3 Spatial Sampling 78
3.5.4 Temporal Sampling 80
3.5.5 Sample Size Calculations 81
3.5.6 External Validity 82
3.5.7 An Illustrative Example of Sample Size Calculations 84
3.5.8 Internal Validity 85
3.5.9 Dropouts and Response Rates 88
3.6 How to Measure Concepts (Methods) 89
3.6.1 Concepts and Constructs 89
3.6.2 Operationalizing Constructs into Measurands 90
3.6.3 Latent Variables 91
3.6.4 Instruments 92
3.6.5 Quantifying Uncertainty 92
3.7 How to Measure Relationships (Research Design) 93
3.7.1 Descriptive (Correlational) Designs 95
3.7.2 Case Studies 95
3.7.3 Cross-Sectional Design 96
3.7.4 Longitudinal Surveys 96
3.7.5 Causative (Experimental) Designs 97
3.8 Pre-analysis Plans 99
3.9 Conclusion 100
References 101
4 Sensing and Data Acquisition 103
Abstract 103
4.1 Introduction 104
4.2 Sensing System Performance Metrics 105
4.3 Occupant Behavior and Presence Sensing 106
4.3.1 State-of-the-Art of Occupant Sensing Technologies 106
4.3.2 Human-in-the-Loop 118
4.3.3 Consumption Sensing 119
4.4 Occupant Data Acquisition 120
4.4.1 Manual Data Storage 121
4.4.2 Wireless Network 122
4.4.3 Gateway or Building Automation System 122
4.4.4 Internet-Enabled Sensors 124
4.5 Other Related Sensing Technologies 125
4.5.1 Indoor Environmental Sensing 125
4.5.2 Outdoor Environmental Sensing 126
4.6 Conclusion 127
References 128
5 Introduction to Occupant Research Approaches 132
Abstract 132
5.1 Introduction 132
5.2 Primary Occupant Research Approaches 134
5.3 Objective Comparison of Approaches 137
5.4 Mixed Methods Research Design 137
5.5 Conclusion 149
References 150
6 In Situ Approaches to Studying Occupants 153
Abstract 153
6.1 Introduction 153
6.2 In Situ Monitoring Approaches 155
6.3 Sensors and Data Acquisition Architecture: Practical Considerations 161
6.3.1 Building Automation Systems 161
6.3.2 Adding Additional Sensors to BASs 164
6.3.3 Obtaining BAS Data 165
6.3.4 New Sensor Networks 165
6.3.5 Distributed Stand-Alone Sensors and Data Loggers 167
6.3.6 Image-Based Sensing for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies 168
6.3.7 Virtual Sensors for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies 170
6.3.8 Future Sensing Technologies for in Situ Occupant Monitoring Studies 171
6.4 Practical and Methodological in Situ Monitoring Challenges 172
6.4.1 Sensor Placement and Obstruction 172
6.4.2 Ground Truths and Validation of Sensor Readings 178
6.4.3 Limited Access to Spaces 178
6.4.4 Monitoring Spaces with Multiple Occupants 179
6.4.5 Hawthorne Effect 179
6.4.6 Participant Recruitment 180
6.4.7 Ethical Obligations and Implications of Performing in Situ Monitoring 181
6.5 Qualitative Aspects of in Situ Monitoring 182
6.6 Use of Surveys to Complement Monitoring 183
6.7 Conclusion 187
References 188
7 Laboratory Approaches to Studying Occupants 192
Abstract 192
7.1 Laboratories in Indoor Environmental Quality Research 193
7.2 Examples of Typical Laboratory Designs and Their Technical Equipment 194
7.2.1 International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy (ICIEE), Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 196
7.2.2 Controlled Environmental Chamber, Center for the Built Environment (CBE) University of California at Berkeley, USA
7.2.3 Indoor Environmental Quality Laboratory (IEQ Lab), University of Sydney, Australia 200
7.2.4 Laboratory for Occupant Behavior, Satisfaction, Thermal Comfort and Environmental Research (LOBSTER), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany 201
7.2.5 SinBerBEST Test Bed, CREATE Tower, Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore (BEARS) Limited, Singapore 203
7.2.6 Respiration Chambers, Metabolic Research Unit Maastricht (MRUM), University of Maastricht, the Netherlands 205
7.2.7 Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, E.ON Energy Research Center (E.ON ERC), RWTH Aachen University, Germany 206
7.2.8 The ZEB Living Laboratory at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) and SINTEF, Norway 208
7.2.9 Indoor Environmental Laboratories at the Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP), Germany 210
7.2.10 Flight Test Facilities, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP) and Institute for Energy Efficient Buildings and Indoor Climate, RWTH Aachen University Germany
7.3 Indoor Climate in Labs—Technical Services, Control, Sensors 213
7.3.1 Conditioning of Labs 213
7.3.2 Solar Incident, Daylight and Acoustics in Test Chambers 215
7.3.3 Temperature Control in the Experimental Environment 217
7.3.4 Data Acquisition and Sensing Indoor Environmental Quantities 219
7.4 Sensors for Personalized Monitoring 221
7.4.1 Measuring Skin and Body Temperature 222
7.4.2 Measuring the Skin Wettedness 223
7.4.3 View Tracking, Measuring Hormone Levels and Monitoring Movements 223
7.5 Lab Studies on Occupant Behavior and Considerations with Regard to Lab Design and Equipment 224
7.5.1 Options for Experimental Settings 225
7.5.2 Recommendations for Lab Design 226
7.6 Influencing Factors Driving Occupant’s Behavior and Their Impact on Experimental Design 228
7.7 Conclusion 230
References 232
8 Survey and Interview Approaches to Studying Occupants 236
Abstract 236
8.1 Introduction 236
8.2 Constructing the Survey 238
8.2.1 Before Designing the Survey 238
8.3 Developing Questions and Constructing the Survey Tool 239
8.3.1 Writing Survey Questions 241
8.3.2 Types of Questions 241
8.3.3 Criteria for Examining Each Survey Question 242
8.3.4 Questionnaire Structure 242
8.3.5 Ordering Questions 243
8.4 Survey Instrument Assessment 243
8.4.1 Reliability & Validity
8.4.2 Types of Survey Errors 245
8.4.3 Pre-testing and Pilot Studies 247
8.5 Participant Selection and Sample Design 247
8.5.1 Alternative Sampling Strategies in Building Research 248
8.5.2 Sample Size 249
8.6 Available Tools for Survey Delivery 249
8.7 Interviews 250
8.7.1 Interview Formats 250
8.7.2 Types of Interviews 251
8.7.3 Conducting the Interview 251
8.8 Survey Stories and Lessons Learned in Occupant Behavioral Research 252
8.8.1 Field Study of Thermal Comfort and Occupant Satisfaction in Canadian Condominiums 252
8.8.2 Energy Consumption in Residential Buildings and Occupants’ Behavior. An Investigation in Mediterranean Climatic Conditions 253
8.8.3 On the Behavioral Effects of Residential Electricity Submetering in a Heating Season 254
8.8.4 A Norwegian Survey Story: The Use of Qualitative Methods 256
8.8.5 Occupants’ Behavior Patterns for Air-Conditioning, Windows, and Lighting 256
8.9 Additional Considerations for Occupant Behavior-Related Surveys 257
8.9.1 Informed Consent for Online Surveys 257
8.9.2 Example of Informed Consent Statement for Survey Study (Day 2014) 258
8.10 Conclusion 259
References 260
9 Validation and Ground Truths 262
Abstract 262
9.1 Introduction 262
9.2 Basic Concepts of Measurement Quality 263
9.2.1 Basic Terms of Measurement Quality Performance 263
9.2.2 Validation and Verification of Measurement Methods 265
9.2.3 Ground Truth in Measurements 266
9.3 Measurement of Occupancy and Occupant Behavior 267
9.3.1 Physically Sensed Variables 268
9.3.2 Reported Variables 271
9.4 Verification and Validation of Measurement Methods 273
9.4.1 Verification of Measurement Methods 273
9.4.2 Validation of Measurement Methods 274
9.4.3 Measurement Uncertainties 275
9.5 Constructing Ground Truth Datasets 278
9.5.1 Validation of Occupant Behavior Measurement 278
9.5.2 Appropriateness, Robustness, and Openness 280
9.6 Conclusion 281
References 282
10 Structured Building Data Management: Ontologies, Queries, and Platforms 284
Abstract 284
10.1 Introduction 285
10.2 Outline of an Ontology for Building Monitoring 286
10.2.1 General Categories 286
10.2.1.1 Occupants 287
10.2.1.2 Indoor Environmental Conditions 287
10.2.1.3 External Environmental Conditions 287
10.2.1.4 Control Systems and Devices 288
10.2.1.5 Equipment 288
10.2.1.6 Energy 289
10.2.2 The Structure of Monitored Data 289
10.2.2.1 Values 289
10.2.2.2 Actors 291
10.2.2.3 Data Sources 291
10.2.3 Expressions of the Ontology for Multiple Data Categories 292
10.3 Data Processing and Typical Queries 294
10.3.1 Periodic Raw Data 295
10.3.2 Event Related Raw Data 296
10.3.3 Interval Data from BAS (Building Automation System)-Integrated Sensors or Data Loggers 296
10.3.4 Practical Examples of Building Monitored Data Processing 297
10.3.4.1 Generation of Occupancy Data from PIR-Motion Raw Sensor Data 297
10.3.4.2 Generation of Presence Probability Profiles 298
10.3.4.3 Generation of Boolean Daily Occupancy Profiles 299
10.3.4.4 Use of Electric Energy Meter Data to Determine Usage Profiles 299
10.4 Building Monitoring Repositories and Prototypical Implementations 300
10.4.1 System Design 301
10.4.2 Data Repositories 302
10.4.2.1 MySQL Data Repository 302
10.4.2.2 Cassandra Data Repository 304
10.4.3 Prototypical Implementation—Monitoring System Toolkit (MOST) 305
10.4.4 Module Overview 306
10.4.5 Virtual Sensor Implementation 306
10.5 Conclusion 307
References 307
11 Ethics and Privacy 310
Abstract 310
11.1 Introduction 310
11.2 Institutions Involved in Ethical Review Processes 312
11.3 Review Categories 313
11.3.1 Exemption 313
11.3.2 Expedited Review 314
11.4 Recruitment of Participants 314
11.4.1 Selection of Participants 314
11.4.2 Vulnerable Populations 315
11.5 Risks and Anticipated Benefits 315
11.5.1 Identification of Risks 315
11.5.2 Minimal Risk 316
11.5.3 Hard and Soft Impacts 316
11.5.4 Risk Issues Specific to Occupant Behavior Research 316
11.5.5 Anticipated Benefits 319
11.6 Privacy and Confidentiality 320
11.6.1 Anonymous Data 320
11.6.2 Privacy in the Use of Personally Identifiable Records 321
11.6.3 Potential Steps to Protect Participants’ Privacy 321
11.6.4 Data Storage, Processing, and Sharing 322
11.7 Informed Consent 323
11.8 Submission Procedures for Ethics 324
11.9 Debriefing 325
11.10 Multiple-Site and Cross-Country Studies 325
11.11 Tips for Improving Interactions with Ethics Committee 326
11.12 Internet Research Ethics 327
11.13 Conclusion 327
References 328
12 Concluding Remarks and Future Outlook 330
Abstract 330
12.1 Research Needs 331
12.2 Future Outlook 332