Gender and Time Use in a Global Context (eBook)

Rachel Connelly is the Bion R. Cram Professor of Economics at Bowdoin College, USA. Her recent research examines time use in the US, particularly as it relates to child caregiving, and the relationships between family structure, age, migration, and time use in China. She is an Associate Editor of Feminist Economics.Ebru Kongar is Associate Professor of Economics at Dickinson College, USA. Her research focuses on the gendered time use and labor market outcomes of macroeconomic developments, such as deindustrialization, offshoring, and the Great Recession in the US economy. She is an Associate Editor of Feminist Economics.Contributor Affiliations:Rania Antonopoulos, Alternate Minister for Labour, Greece; Levy Economics Institute, USALourdes Benería, Cornell University, USAJudith E. Brown, University of New South Wales, AustraliaRebecca M. Centanni, Analysis Group, Boston, USALyn Craig, University of New South Wales, AustraliaDeborah S. DeGraff, Bowdoin College, USAEsther W. Dungumaro, University of Dar es Salaam, TanzaniaValeria Esquivel, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsMaria S. Floro, American University, USAErofili Grapsa, Rhodes University, South Africaİpek İlkkaracan, Istanbul Technical University, TurkeyJiweon Jun, University of Oxford, UKCharlene Kalenkoski, Texas Tech University, USADeborah Levison, University of Minnesota, USAFiona MacPhail, University of Northern British Columbia, CanadaThomas Masterson, Levy Economics Institute, USAMargaret Maurer-Fazio, Bates College, USAEmel Memiş, Ankara University, TurkeyJulie A. Nelson, University of Massachusetts Boston, USADorrit Posel, University of the Witwatersrand, South AfricaMark Price, Keystone Research Center, USASmriti Rao, Assumption College, USAEsther D. Rothblum, San Diego State University, USAJill Rubery, European Work and Employment Research Centre, UKAbhilasha Srivastava, American University, USALyndall Strazdins, The Australian National University, AustraliaAjit Zacharias, Levy Economics Institute, USA

Gender and Time Use in a Global Context 3
Acknowledgements 6
Contents 7
List of Figures 10
List of Tables 13
Feminist Approaches to Time Use 20
1 Introduction 20
2 Macroeconomic Topics in Time Use and Gender 23
2.1 Engendering Macroeconomics 23
2.2 Two-Way Relationships Between Gender Inequalities and Economic Crises and the Subsequent Policy Responses 27
2.3 Unpaid Housework and Care Work in Hard Times 29
2.4 Poverty: Income Poverty, Time Poverty, and Poverty as Capability Deprivation 30
2.5 Rural-Urban Divide Interacts with Gender and Class Inequalities Affecting Migration Patterns 32
3 Microeconomic Topics of Time Use and Gender 33
3.1 The Purpose to Which We Devout Our Time Matters 34
3.2 At Any Moment of Time We Can Be Doing More than One Thing 34
3.3 When We Do What We Do Matters 35
3.4 We Live with Others and Trade Time 36
3.5 Since We Are Putting in the Time, We Are Impacted Immediately by Our Time Use 39
4 Conclusion 41
Notes 42
References 42
PART I Gender, Time Use, and the Macroeconomy 46
Unpaid Work in Macroeconomics: A Stocktaking Exercise 47
1 Introduction 47
2 National Income Accounting and Unpaid Work: Household Satellite Gross Domestic Product Accounts 50
3 Impact of Macroeconomic Phenomena on Unpaid Work 53
4 Impact of Unpaid Work and Its Gendered Allocation on Macroeconomic Outcomes 57
4.1 Unpaid Work in Macro Modeling 58
4.2 Policy Simulations on Impact of Redistribution of Unpaid Work on Macroeconomic Outcomes 61
4.3 Long-run Sustainable Growth and Unpaid Work 62
5 Conclusion 64
Notes 64
References 65
The Challenge of Austerity for Gender Equality in Europe: A Consideration of Eight Countries at the Center of the Crisis 69
1 Introduction 69
2 European Gender Regimes Pre Crisis: Converging Divergences 71
3 Gendered Labor Market Effects Under Recession and Austerity: Main Trends 74
3.1 Recession Effects – ‘He-cession’ 74
3.2 Austerity Effects – From ‘He-cession’ to ‘Sh(e) Austerity?’ 76
3.3 Labor Market Flexibility and Deregulation 78
4 Austerity and the Development of Gender Regimes in Europe 80
4.1 Labor Market Developments 81
4.2 Social Policy Developments 84
4.3 Gender Relations and Ideology 86
5 Conclusions 87
References 89
Women, Recession, and Austerity: A Comment on “The Challenge of Gender Austerity for Equality: A Consideration of Eight European Countries in the Crisis” 93
References 100
Paid and Unpaid Work Time by Labor Force Status of Prime Age Women and Men in Canada: The Great Recession and Gender Inequality in Work Time 102
1 Introduction 102
2 Recessions, Gender, and Work Time: Five Key Hypotheses 105
2.1 He-cession and Industrial Sex Segregation 105
2.2 He-recovery and Male-oriented Stimulus Policy (and Female-oriented Austerity) 106
2.3 Recession and Added Women Workers and Discouraged Men Workers 106
2.4 Great Recession and Increased Unpaid Work 107
2.5 Great Recession Increases Unpaid Work to a Greater Extent for Women than Men 108
3 Empirical Approach 111
4 Dating the Great Recession in Canada 113
5 Gendered Impacts of the Great Recession on Paid and Unpaid Work in Canada 115
5.1 He-cession and Industrial Sex Segregation 116
5.2 He-recovery and Male-oriented Stimulus Policy 118
5.3 Great Recession and Added Women Workers 118
5.4 Great Recession Contributed to Increased Unpaid Work for Both Women and Men 119
5.5 Great Recession Increases Unpaid Work to a Greater Extent for Women than Men: Own Unpaid Work Time Effect 121
6 Conclusion 122
Appendix 124
Notes 126
References 127
Gender, Socioeconomic Status, Time Use of Married and Cohabiting Opposite-Sex Parents, and the Great Recession in the USA 130
1 Introduction 130
2 Macroeconomic Conditions, Gender, and Time Use 133
3 Data and Methodology 139
4 Empirical Model and Results 141
4.1 Primary Child Caregiving Time 142
4.2 Secondary Child Caregiving Time 149
4.3 Solo Time with Children 152
4.4 Family Time 156
4.5 Paid Work and Work Schedules 158
5 Conclusion 167
Appendix 169
Notes 171
References 173
Time and Income Poverty in the City of Buenos Aires 177
1 Introduction 177
2 The Levy Institute Measure of Time and Income Poverty Framework 179
3 Time and Income Poverty in the City of Buenos Aires 182
4 Full-Time Employment and Poverty 191
5 Policy (Re) Considerations for Poverty Alleviation 196
5.1 Labor Market Outcomes 199
5.2 Household Demographics 200
5.3 Social Protection Policies 201
6 Concluding Remarks: LIMTIP Policy Lessons 202
Notes 205
References 206
The Dual Problem of Unemployment and Time Poverty in South Africa: Understanding Their Linkages 209
1 Introduction 209
2 The Dual Problem of Unemployment and Time-Squeeze 211
3 Data Setting 214
3.1 Data Description and Sample Characteristics 214
3.2 Labor Force Classification of TUS Respondents 215
3.3 Time-Use Patterns of Men and Women 217
3.4 Who Are Time-Squeezed? 220
4 Empirical Analysis 224
4.1 Multinomial Logit Model and Empirical Results 225
4.2 Censored Quantile Regressions and Results 227
5 Concluding Remarks 240
APPENDIX A 241
Notes 242
References 244
Women and the Urban Economy in India: Insights from the Data on Migration 247
1 Introduction 247
2 Capitalist Development and the Gender Division of Labor in Urban India 250
3 Changing Patterns of Internal Migration in India 251
4 Explaining the Lack of Female Economic Migration in India 253
4.1 Disguised Economic Migration? 253
4.2 Withdrawal Versus Exclusion 256
5 Socio-economic Characteristics of Urban Migrants 257
6 Logistic Regression Analysis 262
7 Discussion of the Regression Results 266
8 Conclusion 269
Notes 270
References 271
PART II The Microeconomics of Gendered Time Use – The Intersectionality of Care Work, Labor Market Work, and Housework 274
The Challenge of “Indirect Care” 275
1 Introduction 275
2 Too Broad 276
3 Important Implications 278
4 Conclusion 281
Note 281
References 282
Caregiving by Older Adults in the United States: Gender Differences in Well-being 284
1 Introduction 284
2 Evidence on Caregiving for Frail Older Adults and Dementia Patients by Caregivers of Any Age 285
3 Evidence on Caregiving Performed by Older Adults 286
4 Data 288
5 Results 289
6 Conclusion 292
Note 294
References 294
Division of Workforce and Domestic Labor Among Same-Sex Couples 296
1 Introduction 296
2 Methodological Challenges and Opportunities in Studying Same-Sex Couples’ Division of Labor 297
2.1 Who Is a Couple? 297
2.2 Who Are the Heterosexual Comparison Groups? 298
2.3 Division of Domestic Labor as Self-report 299
3 Division of Workforce Labor in US Studies 300
3.1 Division of Domestic Labor in US Studies 302
3.2 Division of Domestic Labor in International Studies 306
3.3 The Role of Income in Division of Housework 308
3.4 Gender Roles 309
3.5 Transgender Couples 310
4 Same-sex Couples as a Model? 311
References 313
Double Shift, Double Balance: Housework in the Presence of Children in the United States 317
1 Introduction 317
2 Background and Conceptual Framework 319
3 Data and Sample 322
4 Estimation Strategy 324
4.1 Structure of Model 324
4.2 Control Variables 327
4.3 Time Allocation Estimation 328
5 Results 328
5.1 First-Stage Time Allocation Results 328
5.2 The Division of Home Production Time 329
6 Conclusion 332
Appendix 334
Notes 338
References 340
How Do Caregiving Responsibilities Shape the Time Use of Women and Men in Rural China? 344
1 Introduction 344
2 Chinese Context and Literature Review 347
2.1 China’s Gendered Labor Market – Urban and Rural, Pre- and Post-economic Reform 347
2.2 Changes in the Social Provision of Services 349
3 Data, Variable Definitions, and Descriptive Statistics 355
4 A Multivariate Model of Daily Time Use 365
4.1 Presence of Household Members in Need of Care 367
4.2 Minority Status 371
4.3 Presence of Other Household Adults 373
5 Conclusions 377
Notes 379
References 380
Gendered Patterns of Time Use over the Life Cycle in Turkey 383
1 Introduction 383
2 Institutional Context in Turkey: An Overview 385
3 Feminist Literature on Gender Disparities in Time Use 391
4 Data and Methodology 394
5 Employment Profiles Across the Life Cycle 397
6 Gender and Unpaid Work over the Life Cycle 402
7 Total Work and Leisure over the Life Cycle 406
8 Discussion and Concluding Remarks 409
Notes 410
References 411
Environmental Chores, Household Time Use, and Gender in Rural Tanzania 417
1 Introduction 417
2 Background and Tanzanian Context 419
3 Tanzanian Case Study 423
4 Environmental Chores at the Household Level 425
4.1 Amounts of Environmental Goods 425
4.2 Participation by Age Group 426
4.3 Household-level Participation Rates 428
5 Environmental Chores at the Individual Level 433
6 Conclusion 440
Notes 441
References 442
Gender Divisions in the Real Time of the Elderly in South Africa 445
1 Introduction 445
2 South African Context 447
3 Data and Methods 449
4 Descriptive Characteristics and Mean Time Allocations of the Elderly 452
5 Clusters of Real-Time Trajectories Among Elderly Women and Men 455
6 The Correlates of Cluster Membership 460
7 Time Evaluations of the Day 465
8 Summary and Discussion 466
Notes 469
References 470
Is It Just Too Hard? Gender Time Symmetry in Market and Nonmarket Work and Subjective Time Pressure in Australia, Finland, and Korea 474
1 Introduction 474
2 Background 475
3 Country Context 479
4 Research Focus 482
5 Data and Method 482
5.1 Data 482
5.2 Dependent Variables 483
5.3 Analysis Plan and Independent Variables 484
6 Results 485
6.1 Time Use by Gender and Country 486
6.2 Time Use by Gender and Country and A/Symmetry 488
6.3 Multivariate Analyses 490
7 Discussion and Conclusion 492
Appendix 495
Notes 498
References 498
Index 504