Life Cycle of the Phosphoria Formation (eBook)

Front Cover 1
Life Cycle of the Phosphoria Formation: From Deposition to the Post-Mining Environment 4
Copyright Page 5
CONTENTS 16
Preface 6
List of Contributors 9
PART I: INTRODUCTION 28
Chapter 1. The Permian Earth 30
Introduction 30
Geology, plate tectonics, paleogeography 30
Climate 33
Oceanography 34
Western North American margin and the Phosphoria sea 37
End of Permian 39
Chapter 2. Evolution of thought concerning the origin of the Phosphoria Formation, Western US Phosphate Field 46
Abstract 46
Introduction 47
Delineation of western phosphate lands: Pre- 1940s 48
Geochemical exploration, P, U, and V: The 1940s-1950s 51
Depositional environments and transgressive-regressive cycles: The 1960s–1970s 54
Paleogeography, phosphogenesis, and sequence stratigraphy: 1980–2002 57
Outstanding issues 63
PART II: REGIONAL STUDIES 70
Chapter 3. The history of production of the Western Phosphate Field 72
Abstract 72
Introduction 72
Early scientific surveys 75
Laws associated with US phosphate exploration and mining 76
Idaho 79
Montana 82
Utah 82
Wyoming 85
Mining in the Western Phosphate Field in the twenty-first century 86
Chapter 4. The Meade Peak Member of the Phosphoria Formation: Temporal and spatial variations in sediment geochemistry 100
Abstract 100
Introduction 101
Methods and data evaluation 104
Element associations 107
Temporal variations in terrigenous elements 107
Spatial variations in terrigenous elements 117
Temporal variations in marine elements 117
Spatial variations in marine elements 126
Conclusions 130
Chapter 5. Regional analysis of spiculite faunas in the Permian Phosphoria basin: Implication for paleoceanography 138
Abstract 138
Introduction 139
Background and previous studies 141
Methods 144
Results 146
Central belt mixed choristid demosponge–hexactinellid sponge assemblages associated with (ruzhencevispongacid) radiolarians 151
Angayucham terrane and Northern Brooks Range 18
Discussion and conclusions 153
Chapter 6. Strain distribution and structural evolution of the Meade plate, southeastern Idaho 164
Abstract 164
Introduction 164
Depth of burial 167
Thermal history 168
Structure 170
Conclusions 188
PART III: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES IN SOUTHEAST IDAHO 194
Chapter 7. The effects of weathering on the mineralogy of the Phosphoria Formation, southeast Idaho 196
Abstract 196
Introduction 196
Carbonate fluorapatite 198
Methods 199
Results 201
Discussion 207
Conclusions 212
Chapter 8. Petrogenesis and mineralogic residence of selected elements in the Meade Peak Phosphatic Shale Member of the Permian Phosphoria Formation, southeast Idaho 216
Abstract 216
Introduction 217
Geologic setting and history 219
Approach and methodology 220
Results and discussion 224
Conceptual model 245
Chapter 9. Weathering of the Meade Peak Phosphatic Shale Member, Phosphoria Formation: Observations based on uranium and its decay products 254
Abstract 254
Introduction 254
Sample collection and description 255
Analytical methods 257
Results and Discussion 260
Conclusions 273
Chapter 10. Mineral affinities and distribution of selenium and other trace elements in black shale and phosphorite of the Phosphoria Formation 278
Abstract 278
Introduction 279
Methods 279
Results 287
Discussion 314
Conclusions 318
PART IV: GEOENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 324
Chapter 11. The Phosphoria Formation: A Model for forecasting global selenium sources to the environment 326
Abstract 326
Introduction 327
Methods and sources of data 327
Conceptual model 329
Idaho case-study 335
Global occurrence of phosphorites and petroleum 340
Conclusions 342
Chapter 12. Lithogeochemistry of the Meade Peak Phosphatic Shale Member of the Phosphoria Formation, southeast Idaho 348
Abstract 348
Introduction 349
Methods 354
Results 356
Weathering and other alteration 370
Other Geoenvironmentally significant trace elements 385
Alteration model 386
Conclusions 390
Chapter 13. Rock leachate geochemistry of the Meade Peak Phosphatic Shale Member of the Phosphoria Formation, southeast Idaho 394
Abstract 394
Introduction 395
Methods 397
Results 399
Discussion 400
Conclusions 423
Chapter 14. Rex Chert Member of the Permian Phosphoria Formation: Composition, with emphasis on elements of environmental concern 426
Abstract 426
Introduction 427
Previous studies 428
Methods 429
Results 433
Discussion and conclusions: Environmentally sensitive elements 451
Chapter 15. Gaseous selenium and other elements in near-surface atmospheric samples, southeast Idaho 454
Abstract 454
Introduction 454
Location 455
Study design 455
Sample collection and analysis 457
Results and discussion 459
Conclusions 460
Chapter 16. Selenium loading through the Blackfoot River watershed: Linking sources to ecosystems 464
Abstract 464
Introduction 465
Site location and description 468
Methods 471
Results 473
Regional selenium reservoir 484
Conclusions 488
Chapter 17. Selenium attenuation in a wetland formed from mine drainage in the Phosphoria Formation, southeast Idaho 494
Abstract 494
Introduction 495
Methods 496
Results 500
Discussion 501
Conclusions 507
Chapter 18. Selenium and other trace elements in water, sediment, aquatic plants, aquatic invertebrates, and fish from streams in SE Idaho near phosphate mining 510
Abstract 510
Introduction 510
Methods and materials 511
Results and discussion 517
Hazard assessment 542
Chapter 19. Uptake of selenium and other contaminant elements into plants and implications for grazing animals in southeast Idaho 554
Abstract 554
Introduction 555
Methods 558
Results and discussion 561
Conclusions 578
PART V: MODELING STUDIES 584
Chapter 20. Review of world sedimentary phosphate deposits and occurrences 586
Introduction 586
Data 586
Sedimentary phosphate deposits 589
Formation and distribution of deposits 592
Conclusions 598
Chapter 21. Western Phosphate Field – Depositional and economic deposit models 602
Abstract 602
Introduction 603
Hydrography of the Phosphoria sea – a depositional model 603
Character and controls of phosphate resources – an economic model 613
Conclusions 620
Chapter 22. Societal relevance, processing, and material flow o f western phosphate – Refreshments, fertilizer, and weed killer 626
Abstract 626
Introduction 626
Utilization and societal relevance of phosphate 627
Mining methods 629
Processed products 631
End products 634
Material flow in the environment 635
Appendix CD: Table of world sedimentary phosphate deposits (with appendices for chapters 12, 13, 18, and 19) 638
Author Index 640
Subject Index 648