Beneficial Chemical Elements of Plants

Sangeeta Pandey is Assistant Professor at the Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India.

Durgesh Kumar Tripathi is Assistant Professor at the Amity Institute of Organic Agriculture, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India.

Vijay Pratap Singh is Assistant Professor, CMP Degree Collage, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, India.

Shivesh Sharma is Professor at the Department of Biotechnology, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, Prayagraj, India.

Devendra Kumar Chauhan is Professor and Head of the Department of Botany at the DD Pant Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India.

Preface xiii

List of Contributors xv

1 Beneficial Elements in Plant Life Under A Changing Environment 1
Misbah Naz, Muhammad Ammar Raza, Muhammad Adnan Bodlah, Sarah Bouzroud, Muhammad Imran Ghani, Muhammad Riaz, Tariq Shah, Akmal Zubair, Imran Bodlah, and Xiaorong Fan

Introduction 1

Beneficial Element Interaction with Environment 2

Aluminium (Al) in Plants 3

Aluminium (Al) in Soil – Aluminium, a Friend or Foe of Higher Plants in Acidic Soils 4

Cobalt (Co) in Plants 5

Cobalt (Co) in Soil 6

Silicon (Si) 9

Function of Silicon 10

Silicon in Soil 11

Sodium in Plants 12

Sodium in Soil 12

Selenium (Se) 13

Selenium in Environment 13

Physiological Functions of Beneficial Elements Under A Changing Environment 13

5-Beneficial Elements Against Stresses 14

Conclusion 15

References 15

2 Role of Beneficial Elements in Epigenetic Regulation of Plants in Response to Abiotic

Stress Factors 22
Muhittin Kulak and Adnan Aydin

Introduction 22

Beneficial Elements for Crop and Non-Crop Plants 22

Selenium 22

Silicon 23

Aluminium 23

Sodium 23

Cobalt 23

Abiotic Stress Factors 23

Epigenetic Modifications Under Stressful Conditions 24

Studies Regarding the Effect of Beneficial Elements on Epigenetic Changes in the Genome of Plants 28

Selenium 28

Cobalt 28

Sodium 29

Aluminium 29

Silicon 30

Conclusion 30

References 30

3 Beneficial Elements and Status of ROS and RNS in Plants: Current Evidence and Future Prospects 38
Biswajita Pradhan, Rabindra Nayak, Srimanta Patra, Chhandashree Behera, Soumya Ranjan Dash, and Mrutyunjay Jena

Introduction 38

Essential and Beneficial Elements in Plant Physiology: A Pleasant Dilemma 39

Aluminium 40

Cobalt 41

Sodium 42

Selenium 42

Silicon 44

ROS and RNS Production Sites in Plant Cells: Cellular Redox Compartments with Regards to Essential Elements 45

ROS and RNS Production and Their Function in Plants: Connecting Physiology to Stress Physiology 47

Conclusion and Future Perspectives 48

Acknowledgments 49

Conflicts of Interest 49

References 49

4 Biostimulant Effects and Concentration Patterns of Beneficial Elements in Plants 58
Libia I. Trejo- Téllez, Libia F. Gómez- Trejo, and Fernando C. Gómez- Merino

Introduction 58

Aluminium 59

Cerium 69

Cobalt 70

Iodine 72

Lanthanum 73

Selenium 75

Silicon 77

Sodium 79

Titanium 80

Vanadium 82

Conclusions and Perspectives 83

References 84

5 Targeted Effects of Beneficial Elements in Plant Photosynthetic Process 103
Costanza Ceccanti, Ermes Lo Piccolo, Lucia Guidi, and Marco Landi

Introduction 103

Effect of Metal Beneficial Elements 104

Effect of Non-metal Beneficial Elements 114

Conclusion 116

References 116

6 Aluminium Stress in Plants: Consequences and Mitigation Mechanisms 123
Akbar Hossain, Sagar Maitra, Sukamal Sarker, Abdullah Al Mahmud, Zahoor Ahmad, Reza Mohammad Emon, Hindu Vemuri, Md Abdul Malek, M. Ashraful Alam, Md Atikur Rahman, Md Jahangir Alam, Nasrin Jahan, Preetha Bhadra, Debojyoti Moulick, Saikat Saha, Milan Skalicky, and Marian Brestic

Introduction 123

An Overview of Al Toxicity in Plants 124

Effect on Root Growth 124

Oxidative Stress 126

Nutrient Imbalances 127

Mechanisms for Al Stress Tolerance in Plants 127

Phenotyping for Al-toxicity Tolerance in Plants 128

Physiological Mechanisms of Al Tolerance in Plants 128

Morpho-physiological Mechanisms 129

Biochemical Mechanisms 130

Cellular Mechanisms 130

Phytohormones-based Aluminium Stress Tolerance in Plants 133

Antioxidants-based Aluminium Stress Tolerance in Plants 134

Potential Transgenic Approach for Aluminium Toxicity Improvement 134

Genes Responsive Under Aluminium Toxicity 135

Gene Family Variation 136

Interference in the Resistance Mechanism 136

Expression and Regulation of Gene Families 136

Genetic Engineering 138

Pyramiding of Genes 138

Phytoremediation of Al Stress in Plants 139

Microorganism-mediated Aluminium Stress Tolerance in Plants 142

Agronomic Management for Mitigating Aluminium Stress in Plants 143

Role of Inorganic Amendments for Mitigating Al Toxicity in Plants 144

Calcium (Ca) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 144

Phosphorus (P) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 146

Magnesium (Mg) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 146

Boron (B) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147

Sulphur (S) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147

Silicon (Si) as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147

Role of Organic Amendments for Mitigating Al Toxicity in Plants 147

Biochar as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 147

Compost or Organic Matter as a Mitigator of Al Toxicity 148

Conclusion 148

Conflict of Interest 149

References 149

7 Mechanisms of Cobalt Uptake, Transport, and Beneficial Aspects in Plants 169
Zaid Ulhassan, Aamir Mehmood Shah, Ali Raza Khan, Wardah Azhar, Yasir Hamid, and Weijun Zhou

Introduction 169

Mechanisms of Cobalt Uptake and Transport in Plants 170

Beneficial Aspects of Cobalt in Plants 172

Growth and Yield 172

Nitrogen Fixation and Nodule Formation 173

Alterations in Nutrient Status 173

Alterations in Physiological and Biochemical Constituents 174

Antioxidant Enzyme Activities and Synthesis of Hormones 175

Protective Roles of Cobalt Against Abiotic Stresses 175

Conclusions and Future Prospects 176

Acknowledgments 177

References 177

8 Cobalt in Plant Life: Responses and Deficiency Symptoms 182
Xiu Hu, Xiangying Wei, Jie Ling, and Jianjun Chen

Introduction 182

Cobalt in Lower Plants 184

Bryophytes 184

Algae 185

Cobalt in Higher Plants 186

Root Absorption of Cobalt 186

Cobalt Transport in Plants 187

Cobalt Effects on Plant Growth 188

Cobalt is Essential for N 2 Fixation in Nodulated Legumes 188

Cobalt Enhances Growth of Non-Leguminous Crops 190

Possible Mechanisms 190

Other Beneficial Effects on Plants 192

Cobalt Deficiency in Plants 192

Cobalt Toxicity in Plants 194

Conclusions and Future Perspectives 196

References 197

9 Silicon Uptake, Transport, and Accumulation in Plants 205
Shivani Sharma, Muntazir Mushtaq, Sreeja Sudhakaran, Vandana Thakral, Gaurav Raturi, Ruchi Bansal, Virender Kumar, Sanskriti Vats, S. M. Shivaraj, and Rupesh Deshmukh

Introduction 205

Molecular Mechanism Involved in Silicon Uptake 206

Seminal Studies Defining Uptake of Silicon in Different Plant Species 206

Silicon Influx Transporter 207

Silicon Efflux Transporter 209

Cordial Activity of Silicon Influx and Efflux Transporter 211

Other Homologs of Silicon Influx and Efflux Transporter 213

Silicon Transporters yet to be Discovered 213

Silicon Deposition in Different Tissues 214

Silicon Deposition in Roots 214

Silicon Deposition in Shoot 214

Silicon Deposition in Leaves 216

Phytoliths: Biochemical Composition and Deposition Patterns 217

Silicon Deposition and the Phytolith Formation 218

Role of Phytoliths in the Silicon Biogeochemical Cycle 220

References 222

10 Silicon in Soil, Plants, and Environment 227
Mujahid Ali, Muhammad Zia Ur Rehman, Asad Jamil, Muhammad Ashar Ayub,
and Muhammad Tahir Shehzad

Introduction 227

Sources of Silicon in Soil, Plants and Environment 228

Natural Sources 228

Artificial/Synthetic Sources 228

Uses of Silicon 229

Industrial Use 229

Application in Agro-ecosystems 229

Role of Silicon in Plant Nutrition-Growth Responses 230

Nutrient Acquisition 230

Plant Growth Promotion 230

Gas Exchange Attributes Modulation 230

Plant Water Balance 230

Antioxidant Enzymes Activities 231

Uptake and Translocation Mechanisms of Silicon 231

Role of Silicon in Agriculture 232

Role of Silicon in Abiotic Stress Management 232

Heavy Metals 232

Salinity 232

Water Stress 234

Temperature Stress 234

Role of Silicon in Biotic Stress Management 237

Pest Attack 237

Role of Silicon in Disease Management 237

Silicon-Mediated Endogenous Modifications in Plants 238

C. Mechanism of Silicon-Mediated Abiotic Stress Management 238

D. Mechanism of Silicon-Mediated Biotic Stress Management 241

Source of Silicon for Agricultural Application 241

Recommendations for Exogenous Silicon Applications 242

Conclusion and Future Perspectives 242

References 242

11 Silicon- Mediated Alleviation of Heavy Metal Stress in Plants 256
Sana Rana, Muhammad Zia ur Rehman, Muhammad Umair, Muhammad Ashar Ayub, and Muhammad Arif

Introduction 256

Heavy Metal (HM) Sources in Agro-ecosystem 257

The Response of Plants Towards HM Stress 257

Sources of Silicon in Soil 258

Role of Silicon in HM Stress Management 258

Silicon Role in Plant Nutrition 259

Silicon-Mediated HM Management Mechanisms 259

Reduction of HM Uptake 259

Modification of Rhizosphere Chemistry/Making Si Complexes with Metals 260

Stimulation of Antioxidants 260

Help in Compartmentation of HM Inside Plants 260

Gene Expression Modification 261

Structural and Physiological Modification 261

Exogenous Application of Silicon to Manage HM Toxicity 261

Silicon Fertilizer 262

Biogenic Si Sources (Organic Amendments Enriched in Si) 262

Silicon Nanoparticles 265

Summary 266

References 266

12 How Does Sodium Content in Growing Media Affect the Chemical Content of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants? Two Sides of the Coin 277
Ahmet Metin Kumlay, Muhittin Kulak, Mehmet Zeki Kocak, Ferdi Celikcan, and Mehmet Hakki Alma

Introduction 277

What Kinds of Functions Have Been Attributed to Sodium for Proper Metabolism of the Plant? 278

What Kind of Perturbations Might Emerge in Case of Deficiency or Excessive Accumulation of Sodium in Growing Media and in Turn, in Plants? 279

What Are the Major Mechanisms Associated with the Damage Caused by High Salinity? 279

Compartmentalization of Sodium Through Plant Parts 280

Why Is the Sodium/Potassium Ratio Important for Plant Metabolism? 280

How Do Priming or Osmo-Conditioning Seeds Using NaCl Solutions Imprint the Sequential Growth Performance or Stage of the Plants? An Approach Regarding Imprint Memory with Low Concentration versus Higher Subsequent Concentration of NaCl 281

What Are Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and Metabolites of Those Plants? How Do Those Metabolites Respond to Higher Content of Na in Media Regarding Total Content and Their Specific Compounds? 281

The Growth, Development, and Yield are Adversely Affected Under High Sodium Concentration of Growing Media, but What Can We Say for Contents of Total Metabolites or Specific Compounds? 282

Alkaloids 282

Terpenoids 283

Phenolics 286

What Kinds of Explanations Have Been Postulated for Changes Concerned with Defence-Related Metabolites in Those Plants Exposed to Higher Levels of Sodium in Growing Media? 297

Do Lower or Higher Concentration of the Sodium Favour Metabolites? 297

Two Sides of the Coin: Is a Third Probability Possible for Plant Production Versus Secondary Metabolite Production? 298

Conclusion 298

References 299

13 Sodium and Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants 307
Misbah Naz, Muhammad Imran Ghani, Muhammad Jawaad Atif, Muhammad Ammar Raza, Sarah Bouzroud, Muhammad Rahil Afzal, Muhammad Riaz, Maratab Ali, Muhammad Tariq, and Xiaorong Fan

Introduction 307

Relationship Between Salinity and Plant 309

Salinity and the Ideal Sustainable Agricultural System 310

Relationship Between Salinity and Sodicity and Soil 311

Salt Stress Effects on Plants 311

Management Strategies to Mitigate Salt Injury 312

Salt Sensitivity 313

Genetic Engineering and Salt-Tolerant Transgenic Plants 316

Role of Sodium in Plants 317

Osmotic Tolerance 318

Proteomics Study in Plant Responses and Tolerance to Salt Stress 318

Ion Uptake/Homeostasis 319

Role of Phytohormones for Abiotic Stress Tolerance 320

Interaction Between Na + and K + in Plants
321

Interactions Between Na + and Mg 2+ in Plants 322

Interactions Between Na + and Ca 2+ in Plants 322

Conclusion 323

References 323

14 Selenium Species in Plant Life: Uptake, Transport, Metabolism, and Biochemistry 331
Zaid Ulhassan, Ali Raza Khan, Wardah Azhar, Yasir Hamid, Durgesh Kumar Tripathi, and Weijun Zhou

Selenium Speciation in the Soil-Plant System 331

Accumulation and Uptake of Selenium Species by Plants 331

Transport Mechanisms of Selenium Species within Plants 333

Selenium Metabolism in Plants 333

Step 1: Conversion of Selenate into Selenite and Selenide 333

Step 2: Selenide to Selenocysteine (SeCys) Transformation 334

Step 3: Transformation of Selenocysteine (SeCys) into Elemental Se 0 and Alanine (Ala) 335

Step 4: Metabolic Pathways of Methyl Selenomethionine (MeSeMet) 335

Biochemistry of Selenium 335

Is Selenium an Essential Trace Element for Plants? 335

Conversion of Inorganic to Organic Selenium Forms (The First Step of the Se-Assimilation Pathway) 336

Adaptive Mechanisms by Plants to Evade Selenium Toxicity Participation of Se-Amino Acids 338

Volatilization of Selenium Organic Compounds 338

Involvement of Selenocysteine Lyase 339

Sequestration of Selenium Organic Compounds 339

Antioxidant Defense Mechanisms 340

Involvement of Phytohormones or Signalling Molecules 340

General Conclusions and Future Prospects 341

Acknowledgments 342

References 342

15 Lanthanides as Beneficial Elements for Plants 349
Fernando C. Gómez- Merino, Libia F. Gómez- Trejo, Rubén Ruvalcaba- Ramírez, and Libia I. Trejo- Téllez

Introduction 349

Lanthanides in Biological Systems 353

Lanthanides in Plants 355

Beneficial Effects of Lanthanides in Plants 356

Conclusions and Future Research Needs 360

References 360

Index 370