Design of Highway Bridges

The late RICHARD M. BARKER, PhD, PE, was Professor Emeritus of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State ­University. Dr. Barker spent more than fifty years as a structural designer, project engineer, researcher, and teacher. JAY A. PUCKETT, PhD, PE, is a Charles W. and Margre H. Durham Distinguished Professor and Director of The Durham School of Architectural Engineering and Construction at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Dr. ­Puckett is also an Emeritus Professor at the University of Wyoming and President of BridgeTech, Inc. in Laramie, WY, a consulting firm that specializes in software development for bridge engineering.

Part I General Aspects of Bridge Design

Chapter 1 Introduction To Bridge Engineering 3

1.1 A Bridge Is the Key Element in a Transportation System 3

1.2 Bridge Engineering in the United States 3

1.2.1 Stone Arch Bridges 3

1.2.2 Wooden Bridges 4

1.2.3 Metal Truss Bridges 6

1.2.4 Suspension Bridges 8

1.2.5 Metal Arch Bridges 10

1.2.6 Reinforced Concrete Bridges 12

1.2.7 Girder Bridges 13

1.2.8 Closing Remarks 14

1.3 Bridge Engineer—Planner, Architect, Designer, Constructor, and Facility Manager 15

References 15

Problems 15

Chapter 2 Specifications and Bridge Failures 17

2.1 Bridge Specifications 17

2.2 Implication of Bridge Failures on Practice 18

2.2.1 Silver Bridge, Point Pleasant, West Virginia, December 15, 1967 18

2.2.2 I-5 and I-210 Interchange, San Fernando, California, February 9, 1971 19

2.2.3 Sunshine Skyway, Tampa Bay, Florida, May 9, 1980 21

2.2.4 Mianus River Bridge, Greenwich, Connecticut, June 28, 1983 22

2.2.5 Schoharie Creek Bridge, Amsterdam, New York, April 5, 1987 24

2.2.6 Cypress Viaduct, Loma Prieta Earthquake, October 17, 1989 25

2.2.7 I-35W Bridge, Minneapolis, Minnesota, August 1, 2007 26

2.2.8 Failures during Construction 30

2.2.9 Failures Continue and Current Data 30

2.2.10 Evolving Bridge Engineering Practice 51

References 51

Problems 51

Chapter 3 Bridge Aesthetics 53

3.1 Introduction 53

3.2 Nature of the Structural Design Process 53

3.2.1 Description and Justification 53

3.2.2 Public and Personal Knowledge 54

3.2.3 Regulation 54

3.2.4 Design Process 55

3.3 Aesthetics in Bridge Design 56

3.3.1 Definition of Aesthetics 56

3.3.2 Qualities of Aesthetic Design 57

3.3.3 Practical Guidelines for Medium- and Short-Span Bridges 67

3.3.4 Computer Modeling 75

3.3.5 Web References 79

3.3.6 Closing Remarks on Aesthetics 79

References 79

Problems 80

Chapter 4 Bridge Types and Selection 81

4.1 Main Structure below the Deck Line 81

4.2 Main Structure above the Deck Line 81

4.3 Main Structure Coincides with the Deck Line 84

4.4 Closing Remarks on Bridge Types 87

4.5 Selection of Bridge Type 87

4.5.1 Factors To Be Considered 87

4.5.2 Bridge Types Used for Different Span Lengths 89

4.5.3 Closing Remarks 92

References 93

Problems 93

Chapter 5 Design Limit States 95

5.1 Introduction 95

5.2 Development of Design Procedures 95

5.2.1 Allowable Stress Design 95

5.2.2 Variability of Loads 96

5.2.3 Shortcomings of Allowable Stress Design 96

5.2.4 Load and Resistance Factor Design 97

5.3 Design Limit States 97

5.3.1 General 97

5.3.2 Service Limit State 99

5.3.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 99

5.3.4 Strength Limit State 100

5.3.5 Extreme Event Limit State 101

5.3.6 Construction Limit States 102

5.4 Closing Remarks 102

References 102

Problems 103

Chapter 6 Principles of Probabilistic Design 105

6.1 Introduction 105

6.1.1 Frequency Distribution and Mean Value 105

6.1.2 Standard Deviation 105

6.1.3 Probability Density Functions 106

6.1.4 Bias Factor 107

6.1.5 Coefficient of Variation 107

6.1.6 Probability of Failure 108

6.1.7 Safety Index 𝛽 109

6.2 Calibration of LRFD Code 111

6.2.1 Overview of the Calibration Process 111

6.2.2 Calibration Using Reliability Theory 111

6.2.3 Calibration of Fitting with ASD 115

6.3 Closing Remarks 116

References 116

Problems 116

Chapter 7 Geometric Design Considerations 119

7.1 Introduction to Geometric Roadway Considerations 119

7.2 Roadway Widths 119

7.3 Vertical Clearances 120

7.4 Interchanges 120

References 121

Problem 121

Part II Loads and Analysis

Chapter 8 Loads 125

8.1 Introduction 125

8.2 Gravity Loads 125

8.2.1 Permanent Loads 125

8.2.2 Transient Loads 126

8.3 Lateral Loads 138

8.3.1 Fluid Forces 138

8.3.2 Seismic Loads 141

8.3.3 Ice Forces 145

8.4 Forces Due to Deformations 150

8.4.1 Temperature 150

8.4.2 Creep and Shrinkage 152

8.4.3 Settlement 152

8.5 Collision Loads 152

8.5.1 Vessel Collision 152

8.5.2 Rail Collision 152

8.5.3 Vehicle Collision 152

8.6 Blast Loading 152

8.7 Summary 153

References 153

Problems 154

Chapter 9 Influence Functions and Girder-Line Analysis 155

9.1 Introduction 155

9.2 Definition 155

9.3 Statically Determinate Beams 156

9.3.1 Concentrated Loads 156

9.3.2 Uniform Loads 158

9.4 Muller–Breslau Principle 159

9.4.1 Betti’s Theorem 159

9.4.2 Theory of Muller–Breslau Principle 160

9.4.3 Qualitative Influence Functions 161

9.5 Statically Indeterminate Beams 161

9.5.1 Integration of Influence Functions 164

9.5.2 Relationship between Influence Functions 164

9.5.3 Muller–Breslau Principle for End Moments 167

9.5.4 Automation by Matrix Structural Analysis 168

9.6 Normalized Influence Functions 170

9.7 AASHTO Vehicle Loads 170

9.8 Influence Surfaces 178

9.9 Summary 179

References 180

Problems 180

Chapter 10 System Analysis—Introduction 183

10.1 Introduction 183

10.2 Safety of Methods 185

10.2.1 Equilibrium for Safe Design 185

10.2.2 Stress Reversal and Residual Stress 187

10.2.3 Repetitive Overloads 188

10.2.4 Fatigue and Serviceability 191

10.3 Summary 192

References 192

Problem 192

Chapter 11 System Analysis—Gravity Loads 193

11.1 Slab Girder Bridges 193

11.2 Slab Bridges 215

11.3 Slabs in Slab Girder Bridges 219

11.4 Box Girder Bridges 228

11.5 Closing Remarks 234

References 234

Problems 235

Chapter 12 System Analysis—Lateral, Temperature, Shrinkage, and Prestress Loads 237

12.1 Lateral Load Analysis 237

12.1.1 Wind Loads 237

12.1.2 Seismic Load Analysis 238

12.2 Temperature, Shrinkage, and Prestress 240

12.2.1 General 240

12.2.2 Prestressing 241

12.2.3 Temperature Effects 241

12.2.4 Shrinkage and Creep 244

12.3 Closing Remarks 244

References 245

Part III Concrete Bridges

Chapter 13 Reinforced Concrete Material Response and Properties 249

13.1 Introduction 249

13.2 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Material Response 249

13.3 Constituents of Fresh Concrete 250

13.4 Properties of Hardened Concrete 252

13.4.1 Short-Term Properties of Concrete 252

13.4.2 Long-Term Properties of Concrete 257

13.5 Properties of Steel Reinforcement 261

13.5.1 Nonprestressed Steel Reinforcement 262

13.5.2 Prestressing Steel 263

References 265

Problems 266

Chapter 14 Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Members 267

14.1 Limit States 267

14.1.1 Service Limit State 267

14.1.2 Fatigue Limit State 270

14.1.3 Strength Limit State 273

14.1.4 Extreme Event Limit State 274

14.2 Flexural Strength of Reinforced Concrete Members 275

14.2.1 Depth to Neutral Axis for Beams with Bonded Tendons 275

14.2.2 Depth to Neutral Axis for Beams with Unbonded Tendons 277

14.2.3 Nominal Flexural Strength 278

14.2.4 Ductility, Maximum Tensile Reinforcement, and Resistance Factor Adjustment 280

14.2.5 Minimum Tensile Reinforcement 283

14.2.6 Loss of Prestress 283

14.3 Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Members 288

14.3.1 Variable-Angle Truss Model 289

14.3.2 Modified Compression Field Theory 290

14.3.3 Shear Design Using Modified Compression Field Theory 297

14.4 Closing Remarks 305

References 305

Problems 306

Chapter 15 Concrete Barrier Strength and Deck Design 307

15.1 Concrete Barrier Strength 307

15.1.1 Strength of Uniform Thickness Barrier Wall 307

15.1.2 Strength of Variable Thickness Barrier Wall 309

15.1.3 Crash Testing of Barriers 309

15.2 Concrete Deck Design 309

References 326

Problems 326

Chapter 16 Concrete Design Examples 327

16.1 Solid Slab Bridge Design 327

16.2 T-Beam Bridge Design 335

16.3 Prestressed Girder Bridge 353

References 371

Part IV Steel Bridges

Chapter 17 Steel Bridges 375

17.1 Introduction 375

17.2 Material Properties 375

17.2.1 Steelmaking Process: Traditional 375

17.2.2 Steelmaking Process: Mini Mills 376

17.2.3 Steelmaking Process: Environmental Considerations 376

17.2.4 Production of Finished Products 377

17.2.5 Residual Stresses 377

17.2.6 Heat Treatments 378

17.2.7 Classification of Structural Steels 378

17.2.8 Effects of Repeated Stress (Fatigue) 383

17.2.9 Brittle Fracture Considerations 384

17.3 Summary 386

References 386

Problem 386

Chapter 18 Limit States and General Requirements 387

18.1 Limit States 387

18.1.1 Service Limit State 387

18.1.2 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 388

18.1.3 Strength Limit States 399

18.1.4 Extreme Event Limit State 399

18.2 General Design Requirements 399

18.2.1 Effective Length of Span 400

18.2.2 Dead-Load Camber 400

18.2.3 Minimum Thickness of Steel 400

18.2.4 Diaphragms and Cross Frames 400

18.2.5 Lateral Bracing 400

References 401

Problems 401

Chapter 19 Steel Component Resistance 403

19.1 Tensile Members 403

19.1.1 Types of Connections 403

19.1.2 Tensile Resistance—Specifications 403

19.1.3 Strength of Connections for Tension Members 406

19.2 Compression Members 406

19.2.1 Column Stability—Behavior 406

19.2.2 Inelastic Buckling—Behavior 408

19.2.3 Compressive Resistance—Specifications 409

19.2.4 Connections for Compression Members 412

19.3 I-Sections in Flexure 412

19.3.1 General 412

19.3.2 Yield Moment and Plastic Moment 415

19.3.3 Stability Related to Flexural Resistance 421

19.3.4 Limit States 432

19.3.5 Summary of I-Sections in Flexure 434

19.3.6 Closing Remarks on I-Sections in Flexure 434

19.4 Shear Resistance of I-Sections 438

19.4.1 Beam Action Shear Resistance 438

19.4.2 Tension Field Action Shear Resistance 440

19.4.3 Combined Shear Resistance 442

19.4.4 Shear Resistance of Unstiffened Webs 443

19.5 Shear Connectors 444

19.5.1 Fatigue Limit State for Stud Connectors 444

19.5.2 Strength Limit State for Stud Connectors 445

19.6 Stiffeners 449

19.6.1 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners 449

19.6.2 Bearing Stiffeners 451

References 453

Problems 453

Chapter 20 Steel Design Examples 455

20.1 Noncomposite Rolled Steel Beam Bridge 455

20.2 Composite Rolled Steel Beam Bridge 465

20.3 Multiple-Span Composite Steel Plate Girder Beam Bridge 473

20.3.1 Problem Statement Example 20.3 473

References 509

Appendix A Influence Functions For Deck Analysis 511

Appendix B Transverse Deck Moments Per AASHTO Appendix A4 513

Appendix C Metal Reinforcement Information 515

Appendix D Refined Estimate of Time-Dependent Losses 517

References 522

Appendix E NCHRP 12-33 Project Team 523

Task Groups 523

Appendix F Live-Load Distribution—Rigid Method 525

Index 527