Handbook of Microdialysis (eBook)

Cover 1
Handbook of Microdialysis: Methods, Applications and Perspectives 4
Copyright page 5
Contents 12
List of Contributors 6
Preface 10
Part One 16
Section 1: Interpretation and Significance 18
Chapter 1.1. What did we learn from microdialysis? 20
I. Introduction 20
II. Early studies of chemical transmission in the brain in vivo 20
III. The introduction of microdialysis 22
IV. Early microdialysis studies in Stockholm 24
V. Microdialysis and neuropharmacology 25
VI. Microdialysis problems 26
VII. Conclusions 27
References 27
Chapter 1.2. Microdialysis of glutamate and GABA in the brain: analysis and interpretation 32
I. Introduction 32
II. Analysis of GABA and glutamate 32
III. Microdialysis of glutamate: interpretation 34
IV. Microdialysis of GABA: interpretation 40
V. Conclusions 43
References 43
Chapter 1.3. Insights into glutamate physiology: contribution of studies utilizing in vivo microdialysis 48
I. Glutamate sampling techniques 49
II. Astrocytes maintain neuronal glutamate 50
III. Glutamate receptors 52
IV. Cellular processes capable of glutamate release 54
V. Synaptic origin of stimulated release 56
VI. Therapeutic targets detected by microdialysis 57
VII. Conclusion 57
References 58
Chapter 1.4. The validity of intracerebral microdialysis 62
I. Introduction 62
II. Theory of single-probe microdialysis 65
III. Studying basal DA to infer errors in quantitative microdialysis 71
IV. Data from other neurotransmitters 80
V. Conclusions 82
References 82
Chapter 1.5. Microdialysis in the brain of anesthetized vs. freely moving animals 86
I. Introduction 86
II. Advantages and drawbacks of microdialysis in anesthetized and freely moving animals 87
III. The use of anesthesia in microdialysis 88
IV. The effects of anesthetics on neurotransmitter systems in the brain 90
V. Comparison of neurotransmitter dynamics in the freely moving and anesthetized preparation 95
VI. Conclusions 99
Acknowledgments 100
References 100
Chapter 1.6. Quantitative aspects of brain microdialysis: insights from voltammetric measurements of dopamine next to microdialysis probes 108
I. Introduction 108
II. The issue of in vivo calibration 109
III. An example of in vitro microdialysis where E and R are different 112
IV. A comment about the concentration-independence of E and R 113
V. Voltammetry as a tool to investigate in vivo recovery of dopamine 114
VI. Comparison of the in vivo extraction and recovery of dopamine 116
VII. A comment regarding in vivo dopamine recovery at zero perfusion velocity 117
VIII. How important is the difference between E and R? 118
IX. What do microdialysis results tell us? 120
X. Concluding remarks 120
Acknowledgments 121
References 121
Section 2: Methods 124
Chapter 2.1. New methodological aspects of microdialysis 126
I. Introduction 126
II. Advancements in microdialysis sampling 130
III. Conclusions 140
References 140
Chapter 2.2. Principles of quantitative microdialysis 146
I. Introduction 146
II. Mathematical framework 146
III. Experimental methodology 159
IV. Analysis 166
V. Illustrative application to dopamine microdialysis 175
VI. Summary 178
Acknowledgments 178
References 178
Chapter 2.3. Automation of blood and microdialysis sampling: combinatorial pharmacology 184
I. Introduction 184
II. Animal containment 186
III. Automated dosing 187
IV. Microdialysis pumps 188
V. Microdialysis probes 189
VI. Sampling physiological fluid 190
VII. Bioanalytical chemistry 193
VIII. Conclusion 195
Acknowledgments 195
References 196
Chapter 2.4. Dopamine–acetylcholine interactions in the brain studied by in vivo microdialysis 198
I. Introduction 198
II. DA/ACh neurotransmission elements and microdialysis methodological variables 199
III. Dopaminergic regulation of ACh efflux in the brain 200
IV. Cholinergic regulation of DA efflux in the brain 203
V. Conclusions 207
Acknowledgments 207
References 207
Chapter 2.5. Microdialysis as a platform for multidisciplinary strategies 216
I. Pharmacology, biochemistry, and behavioral studies 217
II. Pharmacology and/or induction of a pathological condition, biochemistry and electrophysiology 218
III. Monitoring of physiological and/or biochemical variables, with methods independent of microdialysis 223
IV. Limitations and pitfalls of multidisciplinary strategies centered on microdialysis 224
V. Conclusions 225
References 226
Chapter 2.6. Ultraslow microfiltration and microdialysis for in vivo sampling: principle, techniques, and applications 232
I. Introduction and scope 232
II. Microfiltration sampling techniques 235
III. Membrane biofouling and tissue changes 237
IV. Biomedical and clinical application of MF and usMD 238
V. Analytical detection 242
VI. Conclusion 242
References 242
Section 3: Analytical Chemical Aspects of Microdialysis 246
Chapter 3.1. Liquid chromatographic methods used for microdialysis: an overview 248
I. Introduction 248
II. LC considerations 249
III. Miniaturisation: how far can we go? 251
IV. Overview of LC methods for analysis of microdialysates 252
V. Conclusions 261
References 261
Chapter 3.2. Microdialysis coupled with liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry 266
I. Introduction 266
II. Neuropeptides and mass spectrometry 268
III. Liquid chromatography 269
IV. Mass spectrometry 271
V. Tandem-mass spectrometry for the monitoring of drugs and neuropeptides 273
VI. Neuropeptide identification 275
VII. In vivo microdialysis coupled on-line with LC–MS/MS 276
VIII. Future perspectives 276
References 278
Chapter 3.3. Improvement of the temporal resolution of brain microdialysis: sampling in seconds 282
I. Introduction 282
II. Analytical techniques to improve the temporal resolution of brain microdialysis 284
III. Collection and treatment of small volume samples 286
References 290
Chapter 3.4. In vivo peptidomics: discovery and monitoring of neuropeptides using microdialysis and liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry 294
I. Introduction 294
II. Neuropeptide detection and identification in vivo using microdialysis combined with liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC–MS) 295
IV. Screening and identification of function of novel neuropeptides 306
References 308
Part Two 312
Section 4: Microdialysis and the Study of Behaviour 314
Chapter 4.1. Microdialysis to study the effects of stress on serotonin, corticosterone and behaviour 316
I. Introduction 316
II. Home cage and sleep/wake behaviour 317
III. Stressful challenges and anxiety tests 319
IV. Combination of neurotransmitter and corticosterone dialysis 325
V. Conclusions 327
List of abbreviations 327
Acknowledgements 327
References 327
Chapter 4.2. Microdialysis of dopamine and norepinephrine during conditioning and operant behaviour 332
I. Introduction 332
II. Methods 333
III. DA and NA: basic considerations 337
IV. Classical conditioning 340
V. Operant conditioning 346
VI. Dopamine, noradrenaline and learning 354
VII. Conclusions 356
Acknowledgment 357
References 357
Chapter 4.3. Microdialysis in the study of behavior reinforcement and inhibition 366
I. Introduction 366
II. Natural rewards 370
III. Artificial rewards 378
IV. Natural and artificial rewards: do they share common reward mechanisms and circuitry? 379
V. Conclusions 380
Acknowledgments 381
References 381
Chapter 4.4. Changes in acetylcholine extracellular levels during cognitive processes 392
I. Introduction 392
II. Methodological issues 394
III. Microdialysis studies in animals performing spontaneous behaviors involving congnitive processes 401
IV. Acetylcholine release during attention 404
V. Acetylcholine release in learning, memory, and recall 406
VI. Conclusions 407
References 408
Section 5: CNS Pathology Models 412
Chapter 5.1. Microdialysis in genetically altered animals 414
I. Introduction 414
II. Practical aspects of microdialysis in mice 415
III. Microdialysis studies in mutant mice 417
IV. Conclusion 426
References 426
Chapter 5.2. The use of microdialysis in neuropsychiatric disease models 434
I. Introduction 434
II. Ethical and theoretical considerations 434
III. Microdialysis methodology in animal models 436
IV. Psychotropic drug induced models of schizophrenia 436
V. Cognition models of schizophrenia 438
VI. Neurodevelopmental models of schizophrenia 438
VII. Environmental models of schizophrenia 439
VIII. Connectivity models 440
IX. Stress models 441
X. Anxiety and panic models 442
XI. Obsessive–compulsive and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder models 443
XII. Addiction models 443
XIII. Depression models 444
XIV. Concluding remarks and outlook 445
Acknowledgements 445
References 446
Chapter 5.3. The use of microdialysis for the study of neurological disorders 450
I. Introduction 450
II. Microdialysis, an indispensable tool for studying animal model of disease 451
III. Conclusion 463
Acknowledgements 463
References 463
Chapter 5.4. Online glucose and lactate monitoring during physiological and pathological conditions 470
I. Introduction 470
II. Brain metabolism under physiological conditions 471
III. Glucose and lactate under pathological conditions 476
IV. Microdialysis in the clinic 481
V. Conclusion 482
Acknowledgments 482
References 483
Chapter 5.5. Microdialysis in pain research 488
I. Introduction 488
II. Microdialysis in the spinal cord following noxious stimulation 488
III. Microdialysis in brain regions of importance for pain transmission and modulation 489
IV. Conclusion 493
References 493
Section 6: Role of Microdialysis in Drug Development 498
Chapter 6.1. The role of microdialysis in drug discovery: focus on antipsychotic agents 500
I. Introduction: aims of review 500
II. The role of microdialysis in the characterisation of psychotropic agents 501
III. Focus on antipsychotic agents 506
IV. Some perspectives for future research 515
V. Summary and conclusions 516
References 516
Chapter 6.2. Use of microdialysis in drug discovery and development: industry and regulatory perspectives 528
I. The drug discovery process and attrition 528
II. Microdialysis in drug discovery and development 530
III. FDA Critical Path Initiative and regulatory aspects 536
IV. Conclusions 539
Acknowledgments 539
References 539
Chapter 6.3. The use of brain microdialysis in antidepressant drug research 542
I. Introduction 542
II. SSRIs: selective but complex actions on 5-HT neurons 544
III. Noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) 549
IV. Serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors 549
V. Peptide antagonists 550
VI. Concluding remarks 551
Acknowledgment 552
References 552
Chapter 6.4. Microdialysis as a method to study blood-brain barrier transport mechanisms 560
I. Introduction 560
II. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) 561
III. In vivo techniques for BBB transport 564
IV. Microdialysis in BBB transport 565
V. BBB transport studies using microdialysis 568
VI. Discussion and conclusions 579
References 580
Chapter 6.5. Assaying protein-unbound drugs using microdialysis techniques 588
I. Introduction 588
II. Principles of microdialysis 589
III. Protein binding and equilibrium dialysis 591
IV. Microdialysis experiments 592
V. Conclusion 599
References 600
Chapter 6.6. Microdialysis for characterization of PK/PD relationships 604
I. Introduction 604
II. Prerequisites for PK/PD measurements using microdialysis 605
III. Concentration and time aspects of drug presence at the site of action in relation to PD 606
IV. Examples of PK/PD studies with microdialysis 608
V. Conclusions 612
Abbreviations 612
References 612
Chapter 6.7. Application of microdialysis in pharmacokinetic studies 616
I. Introduction 616
II. Microdialysis sampling in pharmacokinetic studies 616
III. Selected studies utilizing microdialysis sampling in pharmacokinetic investigations 620
IV. The importance of characterizing recovery – the good, the bad, and the ugly in microdialysis sampling in pharmacokinetic studies 634
References 634
Section 7: Clinical Applications 638
Chapter 7.1. Microdialysis in clinical drug delivery studies 640
I. Tissue distribution and drug response variability 640
II. In vivo microdialysis in healthy human subjects and patients 642
III. Current clinical applications in drug delivery studies 644
IV. In vivo microdialysis and combinatory use with positron emission tomography 653
V. Conclusions 654
References 654
Chapter 7.2. Transport of glucose to a probe in adipose tissue 660
I. Introduction 660
II. Adipose tissue 660
III. The model 662
IV. The extraction equation 662
V. Features of the no-net-flux method 665
VI. Implantation effects 666
VII. The ‘‘delay time’’ phenomenon 668
VIII. Conclusion 669
References 671
Chapter 7.3. Neurochemical monitoring in neurointensive care using intracerebral microdialysis 674
I. Introduction 674
II. How do compare results of cerebral microdialysis with more clinical data? 675
III. What is the interest and what are the limitations of microdialysis? 676
IV. What is the influence of cares provided to patients on the biochemical data obtained with microdialysis? 681
V. Conclusion 686
References 686
Chapter 7.4. Microdialysis in the human brain: clinical applications 690
I. Introduction 690
II. Methodology 690
III. Clinical studies 696
IV. Conclusions 699
References 700
Subject Index 702