Analysis, Removal, Effects and Risk of Pharmaceuticals in the Water Cycle (eBook)

Cover 1
Copyright page 3
Contributors to Volume 50 8
Volumes in the Series 12
Contents 16
Editor’s Preface 26
Series Editor’s Preface 30
Glossary of Acronyms and Abbreviations 32
Chapter 1. Pharmaceuticals in the environment: sources and their management 38
1.1. Introduction 38
1.2. Sources and Pathways for Pharmaceuticals to the Environment 47
1.3. Means for Minimizing these Sources (e.g., Pollution Prevention) 72
1.4. Summary 86
Notice 86
References 86
Chapter 2: Analysis of Pharmaceuticals as Environmental Contaminants 96
Chapter 2.1. Analysis of antibiotics in aqueous samples 98
2.1.1. Introduction 98
2.1.2. Sample Preparation 105
2.1.3. Quantitative Analytical Methods 108
2.1.4. Conclusions 126
Acknowledgements 127
References 127
Chapter 2.2. Analysis of antibiotics in solid samples 132
2.2.1. Introduction 132
2.2.2. Classification of Antibiotics 134
2.2.3. Physicochemical Properties of Antibiotics 134
2.2.4. Antibiotic Extraction in Solid Matrices 138
2.2.5. Sample Cleanup and Concentration 146
2.2.6. Sample Separation and Detection 148
2.2.7. Application of LC/MS for Quantifying Antibiotics in the Environment 152
2.2.8. Fate and Transport of Antibiotics in Solid Matrices 157
2.2.9. Conclusion 160
References 161
Chapter 2.3. Analysis of neutral and acidic pharmaceuticals by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry 170
2.3.1. Introduction 170
2.3.2. Analytical Techniques 175
2.3.3. Conclusions 190
References 191
Chapter 2.4. Multi-residue analysis of pharmaceuticals using LC-tandem MS and LC-hybrid MS 194
2.4.1. Introduction 194
2.4.2. Simultaneous Extraction of Multi-Class Pharmaceuticals from Aqueous Samples 195
2.4.3. Chromatographic Separation 200
2.4.4. Mass Spectrometric Analysis using Tandem MS 201
2.4.5. Mass Spectrometric Analysis using Hybrid MS 207
2.4.6. Pitfalls in LC-MS Analysis of Pharmaceuticals in Complex Environmental Samples 212
2.4.7. Outlook 217
Acknowledgements 217
References 218
Chapter 2.5. Analysis of acidic drugs by gas chromatography 222
2.5.1. Introduction 222
2.5.2. Preliminary Treatment 224
2.5.3. Extraction/Preconcentration 226
2.5.4. Clean-Up 239
2.5.5. Derivatisation 240
2.5.6. GC separation and Determination 249
2.5.7. Conclusions 250
References 251
Chapter 2.6. Analysis of steroid estrogens in the environment 256
2.6.1. Introduction 256
2.6.2. Analysis 262
2.6.3. Conclusions 294
References 295
Chapter 2.7. Analysis of Iodinated X-ray contrast media 302
2.7.1. Introduction 302
2.7.2. Adsorbable Organic Bound Iodine (AOI) 304
2.7.3. Liquid Chromatography-Tandem mass Spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) and AOI 306
2.7.4. Selective Detection of Organic Bound Iodine (LC-ESI-IISF-MS), LC-ESI-MS/MS, and AOI 309
References 314
Chapter 2.8. Application of bioassays/biosensors for the analysis of pharmaceuticals in environmental samples 316
2.8.1. Introduction 316
2.8.2. Bioassays 321
2.8.3. Biochemical Assays 328
2.8.4. Biosensors 340
Acknowledgments 361
References 361
Chapter 3: Fate and Occurrence of Pharmaceuticals in the Water Cycle 372
Chapter 3.1. Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the aqueous environment 374
3.1.1. Introduction 374
3.1.2. Surface Water 375
3.1.3. Groundwater 385
3.1.4. Wastewater 386
3.1.5. Drinking Water 391
3.1.6. Summary 393
References 393
Chapter 3.2. Transformation of pharmaceuticals in the environment: Photolysis and other abiotic processes 398
3.2.1. Introduction 398
3.2.2. Photolysis in the Environment 402
3.2.3. Photostability and Phototoxicity of Pharmaceutical Compounds 407
3.2.4. Direct and Indirect Photolysis of Pharmaceutical Compounds in Aquatic Systems 408
3.2.5. Role of pH 415
3.2.6. Importance of Product Identification 417
3.2.7. Other Abiotic Transformations 418
3.2.8. Field Studies 419
Acknowledgments 419
References 420
Chapter 3.3. Ecotoxicity of pharmaceuticals 424
3.3.1. Introduction 424
3.3.2. Acute Effects 429
3.3.3. Chronic Effects 438
3.3.4. Mixture Effects 440
3.3.5. Impacts of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment 443
3.3.6. Environmental risk Assessment of Pharmaceuticals 447
3.3.7. Discussion 450
3.3.8. Conclusions 453
References 454
Chapter 4: Removal of Pharmaceuticals in Wastewater and Drinking Water Treatments 462
Chapter 4.1. Removal of pharmaceutical residues during wastewater treatment 464
4.1.1. Introduction 464
4.1.2. Removal During Primary Treatment 468
4.1.3. Removal During Secondary Treatment 469
4.1.4. Removal During Tertiary Treatment 479
4.1.5. Removal During Disinfection 479
4.1.6. Removal During Membrane Treatment 480
4.1.7. Conclusions 482
References 483
Chapter 4.2. Removal of pharmaceuticals by advanced treatment technologies 488
4.2.1. Introduction 488
4.2.2. Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Technology 490
4.2.3. Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOP) 498
4.2.4. Conclusions 507
Acknowledgements 508
References 508
Chapter 4.3. Removal of pharmaceuticals during drinking water production 512
4.3.1. Introduction 512
4.3.2. Groundwater 513
4.3.3. Removal in Waterworks 533
4.3.4. Overall Conclusions 545
References 547
Chapter 5. Conclusions and future research needs 552
5.1. General Remarks 552
5.2. Legislation 553
5.3. Chemical Analysis 554
5.4. Occurrence, fate and Behaviour and Modelling 556
5.5. Removal from WWTP 558
5.6. Toxicity 561
References 563
Appendix: List of Pharmaceutical Compounds 566
Subject Index 596