Handbook of Bioplastics and Biocomposites Engineering Applications

Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, and is also an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in the multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has published about 190 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 60 edited books with multiple well-known publishers. Tariq Altalhi, PhD, is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his doctorate from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management, converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes, and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material. He also researches natural extracts and their application in the generation of value-added products such as nanomaterials.

Preface xxi

Part I: Bioplastics, Synthesis and Process Technology 1

1 An Introduction to Engineering Applications of Bioplastics 3
Andreea Irina Barzic

1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Classification of Bioplastics 4

1.3 Physical Properties 5

1.3.1 Rheological Properties 5

1.3.2 Optical Properties 6

1.3.3 Mechanical and Thermal Properties 7

1.3.4 Electrical Properties 7

1.4 Applications of Bioplastics in Engineering 8

1.4.1 Bioplastics Applications in Sensors 8

1.4.2 Bioplastics Applications in Energy Sector 10

1.4.3 Bioplastics Applications in Bioengineering 12

1.4.4 Bioplastics Applications in “Green” Electronics 13

1.5 Conclusions 16

Acknowledgement 17

Dedication 17

References 17

2 Biobased Materials: Types and Sources 23
Kushairi Mohd Salleh, Amalia Zulkifli, Nyak Syazwani Nyak Mazlan and Sarani Zakaria

2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 Biodegradable Biobased Material 25

2.2.1 Polysaccharides 25

2.2.2 Starch 26

2.2.3 Polylactic Acid 28

2.2.4 Cellulose 29

2.2.5 Esters 30

2.2.6 Ether 31

2.2.7 Chitosan 32

2.2.8 Alginate 33

2.2.9 Proteins 35

2.2.10 Gluten 36

2.2.11 Gelatine 37

2.2.12 Casein 38

2.2.13 Lipid 39

2.2.14 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 40

2.3 Nonbiodegradable Biobased Material 41

2.3.1 Polyethylene (PE) 41

2.3.2 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 42

2.3.3 Polyamide (PA) 43

2.4 Conclusion 44

Acknowledgment 45

References 45

3 Bioplastic From Renewable Biomass 49
N.B. Singh, Anindita De, Saroj K. Shukla and Mridula Guin

3.1 Introduction 49

3.2 Plastics and Bioplastics 50

3.2.1 Plastics 50

3.2.2 Bioplastics 51

3.3 Classification of Bioplastics 51

3.4 Bioplastic Production 53

3.4.1 Biowaste to Bioplastic 53

3.4.1.1 Lipid Rich Waste 53

3.4.2 Milk Industry Waste 54

3.4.3 Sugar Industry Waste 54

3.4.4 Spent Coffee Beans Waste 55

3.4.5 Bioplastic Agro-Forestry Residue 55

3.4.6 Bioplastic from Microorganism 56

3.4.7 Biomass-Based Polymers 57

3.4.7.1 Biomass-Based Monomers for Polymerization Process 57

3.5 Characterization of Bioplastics 58

3.6 Applications of Bioplastics 60

3.6.1 Food Packaging 60

3.6.2 Agricultural Applications 60

3.6.3 Biomedical Applications 63

3.7 Bioplastic Waste Management Strategies 65

3.7.1 Recycling of Poly(Lactic Acid) (PLA) 65

3.7.1.1 Mechanical Recycling of PLA 65

3.7.1.2 Chemical Recycling of PLA 65

3.7.2 Recycling of Poly Hydroxy Alkanoates (PHAs) 67

3.7.3 Landfill 68

3.7.4 Incineration 68

3.7.5 Composting 68

3.7.6 Anaerobic Digestion 68

3.7.6.1 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) 69

3.7.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion of Poly(Lactic Acid) 69

3.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 70

References 71

4 Modeling of Natural Fiber-Based Biocomposites 81
Fatima-Zahra Semlali Aouragh Hassani, Mounir El Achaby, Abou el Kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid

4.1 Introduction 81

4.2 Generality of Biocomposites 82

4.2.1 Natural Matrix 83

4.2.2 Natural Reinforcement 84

4.2.3 Natural Fiber Classification 84

4.2.4 Biocomposites Processing 85

4.2.4.1 Extrusion and Injection 85

4.2.4.2 Compression Molding 86

4.2.5 RTM-Resin Transfer Molding 86

4.2.6 Hand Lay-Up Technique 86

4.3 Parameters Affecting the Biocomposites Properties 87

4.3.1 Fiber’s Aspect Ratio 87

4.3.2 Fiber/Matrix Interfacial Adhesion 88

4.3.3 Fibers Orientation and Dispersion 89

4.3.3.1 Short Fibers Orientation 89

4.3.3.2 Fiber’s Orientation in Simple Shear Flow 90

4.3.3.3 Fiber’s Orientation in Elongational Flow 90

4.4 Process Molding of Biocomposites 92

4.4.1 Unidirectional Fibers 93

4.4.1.1 Classical Laminate Theory 93

4.4.1.2 Rule of Mixture 93

4.4.1.3 Halpin-Tsai Model 95

4.4.1.4 Hui-Shia Model 95

4.4.2 Random Fibers 96

4.4.2.1 Hirsch Model 96

4.4.2.2 Self-Consistent Approach (Modified Hirsch Model) 97

4.4.2.3 Tsai-Pagano Model 97

4.5 Conclusion 97

References 98

5 Process Modeling in Biocomposites 103
Joy Hoskeri H., Nivedita Pujari S. and Arun K. Shettar

5.1 Introduction 103

5.2 Biopolymer Composites 104

5.2.1 Natural Fiber-Based Biopolymer Composites 104

5.2.2 Applications of Biopolymer Composites 105

5.2.3 Properties of Biopolymer Composites 107

5.3 Classification of Biocomposites 108

5.3.1 PLA Biocomposites 109

5.3.2 Nanobiocomposites 109

5.3.3 Hybrid Biocomposites 109

5.3.4 Natural Fiber-Based Composites 109

5.4 Process Modeling of Biocomposite Models 110

5.4.1 Compression Moulding 110

5.4.2 Injection Moulding 111

5.4.3 Extrusion Method 112

5.5 Formulation of Models 112

5.5.1 Types of Model 113

5.6 Conclusion 113

References 115

6 Microbial Technology in Bioplastic Production and Engineering 121
Dileep Francis and Deepu Joy Parayil

6.1 Introduction 121

6.2 Fundamental Principles of Microbial Bioplastic Production 123

6.3 Bioplastics Obtained Directly from Microorganisms 125

6.3.1 Pha 125

6.3.2 Poly (γ-Glutamic Acid) (PGA) 129

6.4 Bioplastics from Microbial Monomers 130

6.4.1 Bioplastics from Aliphatic Monomers 130

6.4.1.1 Pla 130

6.4.1.2 Poly (Butylene Succinate) 133

6.4.1.3 Biopolyamides (Nylons) 134

6.4.1.4 1, 3-Propanediol (PDO) 137

6.4.2 Bioplastics from Aromatic Monomers 137

6.5 Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioplastic Production 138

6.6 Conclusion 140

References 140

7 Synthesis of Green Bioplastics 149
J.E. Castanheiro, P.A. Mourão and I. Cansado

7.1 Introduction 149

7.2 Bioplastic 150

7.2.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) 150

7.2.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) 151

7.2.3 Cellulose 152

7.2.4 Starch 153

7.3 Renewable Raw Material to Produce Bioplastic 153

7.3.1 Raw Material from Agriculture 153

7.3.2 Organic Waste as Resources for Bioplastic Production 153

7.3.3 Algae as Resources for Bioplastic Production 153

7.3.4 Wastewater as Resources for Bioplastic Production 154

7.4 Bioplastics Applications 155

7.4.1 Food Industry 155

7.4.2 Agricultural Applications 156

7.4.3 Medical Applications 156

7.4.4 Other Applications 156

7.5 Conclusions 156

References 157

8 Natural Oil-Based Sustainable Materials for a Green Strategy 161
Figen Balo, Berrak Aksakal , Lutfu S. Sua and Zeliha Mahmat

8.1 Introduction 161

8.2 Methodology 164

8.2.1 Entropy Methodology 165

8.2.2 Copras Methodology 167

8.3 Conclusions 171

References 172

Part II: Applications of Bioplastics in Health and Hygiene 175

9 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics 177
Syed Tareq, Jaison Jeevanandam, Caleb Acquah and Michael K. Danquah

9.1 Introduction 177

9.2 Synthesis of Bioplastics 180

9.2.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics 181

9.2.2 Cellulose-Based Bioplastics 181

9.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan 181

9.2.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 181

9.2.5 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 182

9.2.6 Bioplastics from Microalgae 182

9.3 Properties of Bioplastics 183

9.3.1 Material Strength 183

9.3.2 Electrical, Mechanical, and Optical Behavior of Bioplastic 184

9.4 Biological Properties of Bioplastics 184

9.5 Biomedical Applications of Bioplastics 185

9.5.1 Antimicrobial Property 185

9.5.2 Biocontrol Agents 187

9.5.3 Pharmaceutical Applications of Bioplastics 187

9.5.4 Implantation 188

9.5.5 Tissue Engineering Applications 189

9.5.6 Memory Enhancer 189

9.6 Limitations 190

9.7 Conclusion 191

References 191

10 Applications of Bioplastics in Hygiene Cosmetic 199
Anuradha and Jagvir Singh

10.1 Introduction 199

10.2 The Need to Find an Alternative to Plastic 200

10.3 Bioplastics 201

10.3.1 Characteristic of Bioplastics 201

10.3.2 Types (Classification) 202

10.3.3 Uses of Bioplastics 202

10.4 Resources of Bioplastic 202

10.4.1 Polysaccharides 202

10.4.2 Starch or Amylum 202

10.4.3 Cellulose 203

10.4.3.1 Source of Cellulose 204

10.5 Use of Biodegradable Materials in Packaging 204

10.6 Bionanocomposite 204

10.7 Hygiene Cosmetic Packaging 206

10.8 Conclusion 206

References 207

11 Biodegradable Polymers in Drug Delivery 211
Ariane Regina Souza Rossin, Fabiana Cardoso Lima, Camila Cassia Cordeiro, Erica Fernanda Poruczinski, Josiane Caetano and Douglas Cardoso Dragunski

11.1 Introduction 211

11.2 Biodegradable Polymer (BP) 212

11.2.1 Natural 212

11.2.1.1 Polysaccharides 213

11.2.1.2 Proteins 214

11.2.2 Synthetic 214

11.2.2.1 Polyesters 215

11.2.2.2 Polyanhydrides 215

11.2.2.3 Polycarbonates 216

11.2.2.4 Polyphosphazenes 216

11.2.2.5 Polyurethanes 216

11.3 Device Types 217

11.3.1 Three-Dimensional Printing Devices 217

11.3.1.1 Implants 217

11.3.1.2 Tablets 217

11.3.1.3 Microneedles 218

11.3.1.4 Nanofibers 218

11.3.2 Nanocarriers 218

11.3.2.1 Nanoparticles 218

11.3.2.2 Dendrimers 219

11.3.2.3 Hydrogels 219

11.4 Applications 219

11.4.1 Intravenous 219

11.4.2 Transdermal 220

11.4.3 Oral 221

11.4.4 Ocular 221

11.5 Existing Materials in the Market 221

11.6 Conclusions and Future Projections 222

References 223

12 Microorganism-Derived Bioplastics for Clinical Applications 229
Namrata Sangwan, Arushi Chauhan, Jitender Singh and Pramod K. Avti

12.1 Introduction 229

12.2 Types of Bioplastics 231

12.2.1 Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) 231

12.2.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoate 232

12.2.3 Poly-Lactic Acid 233

12.2.4 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid (PLGA) 234

12.2.5 Poly (ԑ-caprolactone) (PCL) 235

12.3 Properties of Bioplastics 235

12.3.1 Physiochemical, Mechanical, and Biological Properties of Bioplastics 236

12.3.1.1 Polylactic Acid 236

12.3.1.2 Poly Lactic-co-Glycolic Acid 236

12.3.1.3 Polycaprolactone 237

12.3.1.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 237

12.3.1.5 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 238

12.4 Applications 238

12.4.1 Tissue Engineering 238

12.4.2 Drug Delivery System 240

12.4.3 Implants and Prostheses 242

12.5 Conclusion 244

References 245

13 Biomedical Applications of Biocomposites Derived From Cellulose 251
Subhajit Kundu, Debarati Mitra and Mahuya Das

13.1 Introduction 251

13.2 Importance of Cellulose in the Field of Biocomposite 252

13.3 Classification of Cellulose 252

13.4 Synthesis of Cellulose in Different Form 253

13.4.1 Mechanical Extraction 253

13.4.2 Electrochemical Method 254

13.4.3 Chemical Extraction 254

13.4.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 254

13.4.5 Bacterial Production of Cellulose 256

13.5 Formation of Biocomposite Using Different Form of Cellulose 256

13.6 Biocomposites Derived from Cellulose and Their Application 258

13.6.1 Tissue Engineering 259

13.6.2 Wound Dressing 260

13.6.3 Drug Delivery 262

13.6.4 Dental Applications 263

13.6.5 Other Applications 264

13.7 Conclusion 265

References 266

14 Biobased Materials for Biomedical Engineering 275
Ioana Duceac, Fulga Tanasă, Mărioara Nechifor and Carmen-Alice Teacă

14.1 Introduction 275

14.2 Biomaterials 277

14.3 Biobased Materials for Implants and Tissue Engineering 279

14.3.1 Skin Tissue Engineering and Wound Dressings 280

14.3.2 Bone Tissue Engineering 282

14.3.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering 284

14.3.4 Ligament and Tendon Implants and Tissue Engineering 285

14.3.5 Cardiovascular Implants and Tissue Engineering 285

14.3.5.1 Valve Implants 285

14.3.5.2 Artificial Heart/Cardiac Patches 286

14.3.5.3 Vascular Grafts and TE 286

14.3.6 Liver Tissue Engineering and Bioreactors 287

14.3.7 Kidney Tissue Engineering and Dialysis Devices 288

14.3.8 Nervous Tissue Engineering and Implants 288

14.4 Auxiliary Materials 289

14.5 Conclusion and Future Trends 291

References 292

15 Applications of Bioplastics in Sports and Leisure 299
Radhika Malkar, Sneha Kagale, Sakshi Chavan, Manishkumar Tiwari and Pravin Patil

15.1 Introduction 299

15.1.1 Plastic Pollution Due to Leisure and Sports Industries 300

15.1.2 Bioplastics: Overview and Classification 301

15.1.2.1 Biobased Nonbiodegradable 302

15.1.2.2 Biobased, Biodegradable 303

15.1.2.3 Fossil-Based, Biodegradable 304

15.2 Bioplastic in Leisure 305

15.2.1 Camping 305

15.2.2 Eyewear 305

15.2.3 Toys 306

15.2.4 Electronic Equipment and Other 307

15.3 Bioplastic in Sports 307

15.3.1 Shoes and Sneakers 307

15.3.2 Ski Boots 308

15.3.3 Snow Goggles 309

15.3.4 Surfboards and Surfskates 309

15.3.5 Sportscar 309

15.3.6 Football, Baseball, Basketball, Soccer Ball, and Volleyball 310

15.3.7 Hockey 311

15.4 Conclusion 312

References 312

16 Biocomposites in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging Applications 317
Ru Wei Teoh, Yin Yin Thoo and Adeline Su Yien Ting

16.1 Introduction 317

16.2 Advances in Biocomposite Application in Active and Intelligent Food Packaging 319

16.2.1 Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Properties in Active Food Packaging 319

16.2.2 Gaseous Scavenging Activity in Active Food Packaging 320

16.2.3 Freshness and Food Quality Detection in Intelligent Food Packaging 321

16.3 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Compounds 322

16.3.1 Plant Extracts 323

16.3.2 Essential Oils 327

16.3.3 Enzymes and Bacteriocins 333

16.3.4 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated With Natural Compounds 333

16.4 Biocomposites Incorporated with Inorganic Materials 337

16.4.1 Metal Compounds 337

16.4.2 Clay and Silicate-Based Mineral Compounds 340

16.4.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Inorganic Materials 344

16.5 Biocomposites Incorporated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments 344

16.5.1 Intelligent Food Packaging with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments 347

16.5.2 Potential of Natural Food Colorants and Pigments as Active and Intelligent Food Packaging 347

16.5.3 Challenges in Food Packaging Applications of Biocomposites Integrated with Natural Food Colorants and Pigments 348

16.6 Conclusion 348

References 349

17 Biofoams for Packaging Applications 361
Vinod V.T. Padil

17.1 Introduction 361

17.2 Biofoams from Botanical and Plant Sources 362

17.3 Starch and Their Blends 363

17.4 Cellulose-Based Biofoams for Packaging Application 365

17.5 Packaging Foams from Animal-Based Polysaccharides 365

17.6 Seaweed-Based Biofoams 366

17.7 Polylactic Acid 367

17.8 Tree Gum-Based Foams 368

17.9 Karaya Gum-Based Foams 369

17.10 Kondagogu Gum-Based Foams 370

17.11 Microbial Gum-Based Packaging Foams 371

17.12 Conclusion and Outlooks 375

References 375

18 Biobased and Biodegradable Packaging Plastics for Food Preservation 383
Carolina Caicedo, Alma Berenice Jasso-Salcedo, Lluvia de Abril Alexandra Soriano-Melgar, Claudio Alonso Díaz-Cruz, Enrique Javier Jiménez-Regalado and Rocio Yaneli Aguirre-Loredo

18.1 Introduction 383

18.2 Sources for Obtaining Polymers 384

18.2.1 Polymers Extracted from Natural Sources 384

18.2.2 Biopolymers Synthesized by Microorganisms 391

18.2.3 Biopolymers Obtained by Chemical Synthesis 394

18.3 Additives in Packaging Materials 395

18.3.1 Natural Origin 395

18.3.2 Synthetic Origin 398

18.4 Active Packaging 398

18.4.1 Antioxidants in Biobased Active Packaging 399

18.4.2 Active Packaging Biobased with Antimicrobial Agents 401

18.5 Smart Packaging 405

18.5.1 Indicators 405

18.5.2 Biosensors 405

18.6 Functional Properties of Biobased Packaging and Their Effect on Food Preservation 406

18.6.1 Physical and Mechanical Properties 406

18.6.2 Susceptibility to Moisture 407

18.6.3 Gas Barrier 408

18.7 Current State of the Biobased Packaging Market 410

18.8 Prospects for Food Packaging and the Use of Biobased Materials 412

References 412

19 Bioplastics-Based Nanocomposites for Packaging Applications 425
Xiaoying Zhao and Yael Vodovotz

19.1 Introduction 425

19.2 Bioplastic-Based Nanocomposites 428

19.2.1 PLA Bionanocomposites 428

19.2.2 PHA Bionanocomposites 430

19.2.3 Starch Bionanocomposites 432

19.2.4 PBS Bionanocomposites 434

19.3 Packaging Applications 436

19.4 Safety Issue and Regulations 437

19.5 Conclusions 438

References 439

20 Applications of Bioplastics in Disposable Products 445
Mahrukh Aslam, Habibullah Nadeem, Farrukh Azeem, Muhammad Zubair, Ijaz Rasul, Saima Muzammil, Muhammad Afzal and Muhammad Hussnain Siddique

20.1 Introduction 445

20.2 Plastics vs Bioplastics 446

20.2.1 Minimum Utilization of Energy 447

20.2.2 Reduction of Carbon Footprint 447

20.2.3 Environment Friendly 447

20.2.4 Littering Minimization 447

20.2.5 Not Usage of Crude Oil 447

20.3 Types of Bioplastics 447

20.3.1 Starch-Based 447

20.3.2 Cellulose-Based 448

20.3.3 Protein-Based 448

20.3.4 Bioderived Polyethylene 448

20.3.5 Aliphatic Polyesters 449

20.4 Applications of Bioplast 449

20.4.1 Medical Applications 449

20.4.2 Wound Dressing Application 449

20.4.3 Drug Delivery Application 450

20.4.4 Agricultural Applications 450

20.4.5 3D Printing 450

20.4.6 Applications in Packaging Industry 451

20.4.7 Bioremediation Applications 452

20.4.8 Biofuel Applications 452

20.5 Conclusion 453

References 453

21 Bioplastic-Based Nanocomposites for Smart Materials 457
Marya Raji, Abdellah Halloub, Abou el Kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid

21.1 Introduction 457

21.2 Biopolymer 458

21.2.1 Natural Polymers 458

21.2.2 Synthetic Polymers 460

21.3 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites 461

21.4 Bioplastics-Based Nanocomposites for Smart Materials 463

21.5 Physical Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymer 464

21.6 Chemical Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymers 464

21.7 Biological Stimuli-Responsive Biopolymers 465

21.8 Conclusion 466

References 467

Part III: Industrial Application, Sustainability and Recycling of Bioplastics 471

22 Applications of Biobased Composites in Optical Devices 473
Reshmy R., Vaisakh P.H., Eapen Philip, Parameswaran Binod, Aravind Madavan, Mukesh Kumar Awasthi, Ashok Pandey and Raveendran Sindhu

22.1 Introduction 473

22.2 Characteristics and Advantages of Biobased Composites in Optical Devices 475

22.3 Polysaccharide-Based Biocomposite 477

22.3.1 Cellulose 478

22.3.2 Chitin 480

22.3.3 Alginate 481

22.4 Protein-Based Biocomposite 481

22.4.1 Silk 482

22.4.2 Collagen 483

22.4.3 Gelatin 483

22.5 Polynucleotides and Carbonized-Based Biocomposite 484

22.5.1 DNA Origami 484

22.5.2 Carbon Nanomaterials 486

22.6 Future Trends and Perspective 487

22.7 Conclusion 487

References 488

23 Biocomposites and Bioplastics in Electrochemical Applications 491
Sema Aslan and Derya Bal Altuntaş

23.1 Introduction 491

23.2 Electrochemistry 492

23.2.1 General Aspects 492

23.3 Nanomaterials in Biocomposite Applications 492

23.4 Electrochemical Applications 493

23.4.1 Biosensors 493

23.4.2 Sensors 501

23.4.3 Corrosion 502

23.4.4 Energy Applications 503

23.5 Conclusion 506

References 507

24 Biofibers and Their Composites for Industrial Applications 513
Meshude Akbulut Söylemez, Kemal Özer and Demet Ozer

24.1 Introduction 513

24.2 Types of Biofibers 514

24.2.1 Seed Fibers 516

24.2.2 Leaf Fibers 518

24.2.3 Bast Fibers 519

24.2.4 Stalk Fibers 521

24.3 Chemical and Physical Modification of Biofibers as Reinforcing Materials for Biocomposites 521

24.3.1 Chemical Treatment Processes 522

24.3.1.1 Alkalization 522

24.3.1.2 Silanization 523

24.3.1.3 Acetylation 525

24.3.1.4 Benzoylation 527

24.3.2 Physical Treatment Processes 527

24.3.2.1 Plasma Treatment 527

24.3.2.2 Ultrasound Treatment 528

24.3.2.3 Ultraviolet Treatment 529

24.4 Biofiber Composites for Industrial Applications 529

24.5 Challenges and Perspectives for Future Research 532

24.6 Conclusion 533

References 534

25 Bioplastics and Biocomposites in Flame-Retardant Applications 539
L. Magunga, M. Mohapi, A. Kaleni, S. Magagula, M.J. Mochane and M.T. Motloung

25.1 Introduction 539

25.2 A Brief Introduction to Bioplastics and Biocomposites 541

25.3 Flame Retardants Used in Polymer Materials 545

25.4 Action Mechanisms of Flame Retardants 554

25.4.1 Char-Formation 556

25.4.2 Inet Gas 556

25.4.3 Contact of Chemicals 557

25.4.4 Restriction of Vapor Phase Burning 557

25.5 Compatibility of Flame Retardants With Polymer Matrices 557

25.6 Preparation of Flame-Retardant Biocomposites and Bioplastics 559

25.7 Applications of Flame-Retardant Bioplastics and Biocomposites 561

25.8 Conclusions 566

Acknowledgements 567

References 567

26 Biobased Thermosets for Engineering Applications 575
Bhargavi Koneru, Jhilmil Swapnalin, Hanumanthrayappa Manjunatha and Prasun Banerjee

26.1 Introduction 575

26.2 Sustainable Covalently Bonded Polyamides are Produced by Polycondensing a Naturally Present Functionalized Carboxyl Group (Citric Acid) with 1, 8-Octane Diol 576

26.3 Biodegradable Crosslinked Polyesters by Polycondensation of a Naturally Occurring Citric Acid and Glycerol 577

26.4 Sugar-Based Lactones to Produce Degradable Dimethacrylates 578

26.5 Water Facilitated, Naturally Produced Difunctional or Trifunctional Carboxyl Groups and Epoxidized Sucrose Soyate Are Made (With Sugars and Soybean Oil Lipids) 580

26.5.1 Learning More About the Significance of Water in the Curing Process 580

26.6 Isosorbide Was Employed as a Bridge in an Adhesive System After Being Introduced Into a Carbonyl Group 581

26.7 Thermoplastic Polymers Based on a Spiro Diacetyl Trigger Generated From Lignin 583

26.8 Properties of Epoxy Resin Thermosets With Acetal Addition 583

26.8.1 Mechanical Properties 583

26.8.2 Thermal Properties 583

26.9 Conclusions 584

Acknowledgements 584

References 584

27 Public Attitude Toward Recycling Routes of Bioplastics—Knowledge on Sustainable Purchase 589
Farhan Shaikh and Sunny Kumar

27.1 Introduction 589

27.2 Production of Plastics 590

27.3 Application of Bioplastics 591

27.4 Recycle Route of Bioplastics 592

27.5 Public Contribution of Recycling 592

27.6 Awareness of Sustainable Purchase 596

27.7 Conclusion 598

References 599

28 Applications of Bioplastic in Composting Bags and Planting Pots 605
Sonica Sondhi

28.1 Introduction 605

28.2 Biodegradable Pots (Biopots) 607

28.2.1 Plantable Pots 608

28.2.2 Composting Bags 608

28.3 Biodegradable Planting Pots 609

28.3.1 Biodegradable Planting Pots Based on Pressed Fibers 609

28.3.2 Biodegradable Planting Pots Based on Bioplastics 610

28.3.3 Biopots Based on Industry and Agriculture 611

28.4 Growth and Quality of Plants in Biopots 613

28.5 Future Trends and Challenges 614

28.6 Conclusion 614

References 615

29 Bioplastics, Biocomposites and Biobased Polymers—Applications and Innovative Approaches for Sustainability 619
V. P. Sharma, Anurag Singh, Neha Srivastava, Prachi Srivastava and Inamuddin

29.1 Introduction 620

29.2 Characteristics of Biobased Polymers 621

29.3 Biobased Polymers and Bioplastics Sustainability 621

29.4 Biodegradation and Standardization of Bioplastics and Biobased Polymers 622

29.4.1 Standard EN 13432 622

29.4.2 Standards for Oxodegradation 622

29.4.3 Australasian Bioplastics Association 623

29.4.4 Australian Packaging Covenant Organization 623

29.5 Application of Bioplastics, Biocomposites, and Biobased Polymers 623

29.5.1 Application in Medicine 623

29.5.2 Application in Packaging 624

29.5.3 Application in Agriculture 624

29.5.4 Other Applications 625

29.6 Conclusion 625

References 626

30 Recycling of Bioplastics: Mechanism and Economic Benefits 629
Nadia Akram, Muhammad Saeed, Muhammad Usman, Tanveer Hussain Bokhari, Akbar Ali and Zunaira Shafiq

30.1 Overview of Popular Bioplastics 629

30.1.1 Starch-Based Bioplastics 630

30.1.2 Cellulose-Based Bioplastic 631

30.1.3 Polylactic Acid (PLA)-Based Bioplastics 631

30.1.4 Polyhydroxy Alkanoate-Based Bioplastics (PHA) 631

30.1.5 Organic Polyethylene 632

30.1.6 Protein-Based Bioplastics 632

30.1.7 Drop-In Bioplastics 632

30.1.8 Fossil Fuel-Based Bioplastics 632

30.2 Recycling of Bioplastics 633

30.2.1 Background of Bioplastics Recycling 633

30.2.2 Options of Recycling 634

30.2.3 Generation of Energy From Recycling Process 634

30.3 Types of Recycling 636

30.3.1 Mechanical Recycling 636

30.3.1.1 Method of Mechanical Recycling 636

30.3.1.2 Mechanical Recycling Mechanism 636

30.3.1.3 Mechanical Recycling in Landscape 637

30.3.1.4 Sorting 637

30.3.2 Chemical Recycling 638

30.3.2.1 Solvent Purification 638

30.3.2.2 Chemical Depolymerization 638

30.3.2.3 Thermal Depolymerization 639

30.3.2.4 Benefits of Chemical Recycling 639

30.3.3 Textile Fibers Recycling Through MR or CR 639

30.3.4 Recycled Polyester From Plastic Bottles 639

30.3.5 Significance of Recycling 640

30.3.5.1 Significance of MR 640

30.3.5.2 Significance of CR 641

30.4 Economic Aspects of Bioplastic Recycling Industry 641

30.4.1 New Market and Economic Benefits 642

30.4.2 Disadvantages of Biodegradable Plastics for Economy 643

30.4.2.1 Usage of Specific Disposal Procedure 643

30.4.2.2 Metallic Contamination 643

30.4.2.3 Environmental Cooperation for Disposal 644

30.4.2.4 High Capital Cost 644

30.4.2.5 Usage of Cropland to Produce Items 644

30.4.2.6 Marine Pollution Problems 644

30.4.2.7 Guarantee of Net Savings 644

30.5 Conclusion 645

References 645

Index 649