Human Nervous System (eBook)

Front Cover 1
The Human Nervous System 4
Copyright Page 5
Contents 8
Contributors 14
Preface 18
SECTION 1: EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 20
Chapter 1. Brain Evolution 22
Historical Pattern of Vertebrate Brain Evolution 23
Developmental Mechanisms Underlying Brain Evolution 28
Evolution of Uniquely Human Brains 32
Conclusions 35
References 35
Chapter 2. Embryonic Development of the Central Nervous System 41
Developmental Stages and Ages 42
Areas with Special Inductive Influence 42
Neurulation 43
Neurocytogenesis 45
Development of the Neural Plate and Groove 47
The Brain from 4 to 6 Postfertilizational Weeks 48
Some Individual Regions of the Brain 49
Ventricles, Choroid Plexuses, and Circumventricular Organs 62
The Cerebral Arteries 63
Measurements 63
Summary 64
References 65
Chapter 3. Fetal Development of the Central Nervous System 68
Cerebral cortex 68
Deep Telencephalic Nuclei 76
Diencephalon 88
Midbrain 95
Cerebellum and Precerebellar Nuclei 97
Pons and Medulla 100
Spinal Cord 103
Acknowledgment 105
References 105
Chapter 4. Development of the Peripheral Nervous System 114
Cranial Nerves 114
Somatic Peripheral Nervous System 121
Automatic and Enteric Nervous System 123
References 126
SECTION II: PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SPINAL CORD 130
Chapter 5. Peripheral Motor System 132
Composition of Muscle Nerves 132
Muscle Receptors 134
Features of Muscle 141
Muscle Units and Motor Units 145
Acknowledgment 148
References 148
Chapter 6. Peripheral Autonomic Pathways 153
General Organization of Autonomic Pathways 153
Cranial Autonomic Pathways 157
Sympathetic Pathways 171
Pelvic Autonomic Pathways 181
Enteric Plexuses 186
Adrenal Medulla and Paraganglia 189
Concluding Remarks 190
Acknowledgments 190
References 190
Chapter 7. Spinal Cord: Cyto- and Chemoarchitecture 209
Cyto- and Dendroarchitecture 209
Chemoarchitecture 228
Myeloarchitecture 243
Acknowledgments 246
References 247
Chapter 8. Spinal Cord: Connections 252
Propriospinal Pathways 252
Afferent Pathways 254
Efferent Pathways 262
References 266
Chapter 9. Spinal Cord in Relation to the Peripheral Nervous System 269
The Spinal Cord-Spinal Nerve Root Junction 270
Developmental Aspects 273
Experimental Studies of the Transitional Region 274
Brachial and Lumbosacral Plexuses 278
References 281
SECTION III: BRAINSTEM AND CEREBELLUM 284
Chapter 10. Organization of Human Brain Stem Nuclei 286
Autonomic Regulatory Centers 292
Reticular Formation 320
Tegmental Nuclei 324
Locus Coeruleus 325
Raphe Nuclei 326
Ventral Mesencephalic Tegmentum and Substantia Nigra 326
Cranial Motor Nuclei 327
Somatosensory System 328
Vestibular Nuclei 331
Auditory System 331
Visual System 333
Precerebellar Nuclei and Red Nucleus 333
Conclusion 335
References 336
Chapter 11. Cerebellum and Precerebellar Nuclei 340
External Form, Development, and Subdivision of the Human Cerebellum 341
Cerebellar Nuclei 350
Cerebellar Peduncles: Topography of Pathways from the Human Cerebellar Nuclei 355
Afferent Fiber Systems 374
The Vestibulocerebellum 393
Longitudinal Zonation of the Cerebellum 394
Acknowledgments 401
References 401
Chapter 12. Periaqueductal Gray 412
External Boundaries of the Periaqueductal Gray 412
Internal boundaries of the Periaqueductal Gray 413
Chemoarchitecture of the Primate Periaqueductal Gray 419
Connectivity of the Primate Periaqueductal Gray 424
Functional Aspects 432
Conclusion 436
References 437
Chapter 13. Raphe Nuclei 443
Divisions of the Raphe Nuclei 444
Connectivity 449
Functional Considerations 455
Acknowledgments 459
References 459
Chapter 14. Substantia Nigra and Locus Coeruleus 468
Substantia Nigra 470
Locus Coeruleus and Subcoeruleus 477
References 480
Chapter 15. Lower Brain Stem Regulation of Visceral, Cardiovascular, and Respiratory Function 483
Principles of Functional Neuroanatomical Organization in the Brain Stem 484
Cadiovascular Function 485
Respiratory Function 489
Salivation, Swallowing, and Gastrointestinal Function, Nausea, and Vomiting 492
Lower Brain Stem Regulation of Vomiting 494
Lower Brain Stem Regulation of Hypothalamohypophyseal Secretion 494
Lower Brain Stem Regulation of Pelvic Viscera 495
References 496
Chapter 16. Reticular Formation: Eye Movements, Gaze, and Blinks 498
Eye and Head Movements 499
Eyelid and Blink 516
References 522
SECTION IV: DIENCEPHALON, BASAL GANGLIA AND AMYGDALA 530
Chapter 17. Hypothalamus 532
Cytoarchitecture of the Human Thalamus 533
Fiber Connections of the Hypothalamus 543
Functional Organization of the Hypothalamus 549
References 561
Chapter 18. Hypophysis 570
Anatomy of the Hypophysis 570
Imaging of the Hypophysis 572
Histology 573
Ultrastructure 575
References 580
Chapter 19. Circumventricular Organs 581
Subfornical Organ 582
Vascular Organ of the Lamina Terminalis 588
Median Eminence and Neurohypophysis 592
Pineal Gland 596
Subcommissural Organ 599
Area Postrema 600
Choroid Plexus 604
References 605
Chapter 20. Thalamus 611
General Considerations 611
Diencephalon 614
Thalamus 618
Isothalamus. Constitution, Architecture, and Function 619
Regio Superior 623
Regio Medialis 627
Regio Posterior 630
Regio Basalis 633
Regio Geniculata 638
Regio Lateralis 639
Subregio Lateralis Arcuata. Nucleus Ventralis Arcuatus. VArc 642
Subregio Caudalis. Lemniscal Territory 643
Subregio Lateralis Intermedia. Cerebellar Territory 645
Subregio Lateralis Oralis. Pallidal Territory 649
Subregio Lateralis Rostralis. Nigral Territory 654
Allothalamus. Involucrum 666
Regio Centralis 670
Thalamic Stereotaxy 676
References 679
Chapter 21. The Basal Ganglia 695
Topography, Cytoarchitecture, and Basic Circuitry 696
Functional Basal Ganglia Connections 725
Functional Considerations 734
Acknowledgments 736
References 738
Chapter 22. Amygdala 758
Terminology 758
Description 760
Acknowledgments 876
References 879
SECTION V: CORTEX 888
Chapter 23. Hippocampal Formation 890
Gross Anatomical Features 891
Cytoarchitectonic Organization of the Hippocampal Formation 899
Hippocampal Connectivity 910
Clinical Anatomy 920
Functional Considerations—The Emergence Of Neuroimaging 922
Acknowledgments 925
References 925
Chapter 24. Cingulate Gyrus 934
Surface Morphology 935
Regional Morphology: Four Fundamental Cingulate Subdivisions 938
Functional Correlations of the Four Cingulate Regions 939
Maps of Cingulate Areas 942
Cytology of Cingulate Areas 943
Comparison of the Brodmann Areas with Recent Modifications Thereof 962
Cortical Differentiation in Posterior Cingulate Gyrus 962
The Future for Cingulocentric Hypotheses and Research 965
Dedication and Acknowledgments 966
References 966
Chapter 25. The Frontal Cortex 969
Sulcal and Gyral Morphology of the Frontal Cortex 970
Architechtonic Organization 974
Corticocortical Connection Patterns 982
Acknowledgments 989
References 990
Chapter 26. Motor Cortex 992
Monkey Motor Cortex 994
Human Motor Cortex 1004
Concluding Remarks 1011
Acknowledgments 1011
References 1011
Chapter 27. Architecture of the Human Cerebral Cortex 1016
Principal Subdivisions of the Cerebral Cortex 1016
Quantitative Aspects of the Cerebral Cortex 1017
Paleocortex 1019
Archicortex 1022
Isocortex 1026
Cortical Maps of the Human Brain: Past, Present, Future 1057
Acknowledgments 1061
References 1061
SECTION VI: SYSTEMS 1076
Chapter 28. Somatosensory System 1078
Receptor Types and Afferent Pathways 1080
Relay Nuclei to Medulla and Upper Spinal Cord 1088
Somatosensory Regions of the Midbrain 1090
Somatosensory Thalamus 1090
Anterior Parietal Cortex 1093
Posterior Parietal Cortex 1099
Somatosensory Cortex of the Medial Wall: The Supplementary Sensory Area and Cingulate Cortex 1102
Somatosensory Cortex of the Lateral (Sylvian) Sulcus 1103
Summary 1104
References 1105
Chapter 29. Trigeminal Sensory System 1112
Receptors and Their Innervation 1113
Trigeminal Nerves, Ganglion, and Root 1117
Brainstem Trigeminal Sensory Nuclei 1120
Thalamic Sites for Trigeminal Somatic Sensations 1128
Cranial Somatosensory Cortex 1132
References 1135
Chapter 30. Pain System 1144
Nociceptors 1144
Pain Transmission Neurons and Pathways 1156
Descending Pain Modulatory Systems 1166
Brain Structures Involved in Pain Perception and Integration 1169
Summary and Conclusions 1176
References 1177
Chapter 31. Gustatory System 1190
Gustatory Apparatus and peripheral Innervation 1190
The Central Nervous System 1192
Further Gustatory Processing 1208
Summary 1210
Acknowledgments 1210
References 1210
Chapter 32. Olfaction 1216
Olfactory Mucosa 1217
Olfactory Bulb 1219
Primary Olfactory Cortex 1220
Olfactory Projections Beyond the Primary Olfactory Cortex 1225
References 1228
Chapter 33. Vestibular System 1231
Topography and Cytoarchitecture 1232
Connections 1240
Conclusion 1252
Acknowledgments 1252
References 1252
Chapter 34. Auditory System 1260
The Cochlea and Cochlear Nerve 1261
The Brain Stem Auditory System 1270
The Forebrain Auditory System 1283
The Descending Auditory System 1290
References 1293
Chapter 35. Visual System 1299
Central Visual Pathway 1299
Primary Visual Cortex 1305
Extrastriate Cortex 1312
Acknowledgments 1320
References 1320
Chapter 36. Emotional Motor System 1325
Basic Motor System 1325
Somatic Motor System 1328
Emotional Motor System 1331
Concluding Remarks 1342
References 1343
Chapter 37. Cerebral Vascular System 1344
Anatomy of Cerebral Blood Vessels 1345
Anatomy of Spinal Cord Blood Vessels 1358
Vascular Innervation 1359
Mapping Cerebral Function with Blood Flow 1360
Global Responses of the Cerebral Circulation 1363
References 1364
Index 1368