The Comparative Embryology of Sponges (eBook)

Preface 5
1 Organization and Taxonomic Structure of Sponges 14
2 Organization of ‘Cellular’ Sponges 16
2.1 Aquiferous System 16
2.2 Tissue Organization 19
2.2.1 The Epitheliums 20
2.2.2 Tissues of the Internal Environment 31
Supportive-Connective Tissue 31
Protective-Secretory Tissue 34
Amoeboid Cells 34
Cells with Inclusions 37
Cells with Large Inclusions. 37
Cells with Small Inclusions 40
3 Organization of Syncytial Sponges (Class Hexactinellida) 41
3.1 Aquiferous System 41
3.2 Tissue Organization 42
3.2.1 Trabecular (Primary) Syncytium 43
3.2.2 Mesohyl 44
3.3 Cell Composition 44
3.3.1 Supportive-Connective Tissue 44
3.3.2 Protective-Secretory tissue 45
Cells with Inclusions 46
Choanocytes 47
3.4 Cytoskeleton 48
4 Tissue Plasticity and Cell Transdifferentiation 48
4.1 Cellular Sponges 48
4.2 Syncytial Sponges: Reaggregation of Dissociated Tissues of Glass Sponges 49
5 Some Ultrastructural and Molecular-Biological Characteristics of Sponges 50
5.1 Intercellular Junctions 50
5.2 Extracellular Matrix 50
6 Endosymbiotic Bacteria 53
7 A Brief Historical Overview 54
Chapter 1 60
Development of Sponges from the Class Calcarea Bowerbank, 1864 60
1.1 The Subclass Calcaronea Bidder, 1898 60
1.1.1 Gametogenesis 63
1.1.2 Fertilization 66
1.1.3 Embryonic Development 69
1.1.4 Larva 75
1.1.5 Metamorphosis 77
1.1.6 Asexual Reproduction 80
1.2 The Subclass Calcinea Bidder, 1898 80
1.2.1 Gametogenesis 82
1.2.2 Embryonic Development 85
1.2.3 Larva 87
1.2.4 Metamorphosis 92
1.2.5 Asexual Reproduction 93
Chapter 2 94
Development of Sponges from the Class Hexactinellida Schmidt, 1870 94
2.1 Gametogenesis 97
2.2 Embryonic Development 98
2.3 Larva 101
2.4 Metamorphosis 102
2.5 Asexual Reproduction 103
Chapter 3 104
Development of Sponges from the Class Demospongiae Sollas, 1885 104
3.1 Reproductive Strategies and Taxonomy of the Demospongiae (Oviparous Demospongiae) 105
3.2 The Order Hadromerida Topsent, 1894 108
3.2.1 Gametogenesis 110
3.2.1.1 The Origin of Gametes 110
3.2.1.2 Oogenesis 112
3.2.2 Embryonic Development 115
3.2.2.1 Cleavage 115
3.2.2.2 Larval Morphogenesis 115
3.2.2.3 Embryonic Morphogenesis 116
3.2.3 Asexual Reproduction 117
3.3 The Order Spirophorida Bergquist and Hogg, 1969 118
3.3.1 Gametogenesis 119
3.3.2 Fertilization 119
3.3.3 Embryonic Development 119
3.3.3.1 Embryonic Morphogenesis 120
3.3.4 Asexual Reproduction 122
3.4 The Order Chondrosida Boury-Esnault and Lopès, 1985 122
3.4.1 Gametogenesis 122
3.4.2 Embryonic Development 124
3.4.2.1 Cleavage and Larval Morphogenesis 124
3.4.3 Larva 126
3.4.4 Metamorphosis 127
3.4.5 Asexual Reproduction 127
3.5 The Order Halichondrida Gray, 1867 128
3.5.1 Gametogenesis 128
3.5.1.1 Spermatogenesis 128
3.5.2 Embryonic Development 133
3.5.2.1 Cleavage 133
3.5.3 Larva 135
3.5.4 Metamorphosis 139
3.5.5 Asexual Reproduction 139
3.6 The Order Halisarcida Bergquist, 1996 140
3.6.1 Gametogenesis 142
3.6.2 Follicle 143
3.6.3 Embryonic Development 144
3.6.3.1 Larval Morphogenesis 147
3.6.4 Larvae 152
3.6.5 Metamorphosis 157
3.7 The Order Dendroceratida Minchin, 1900 164
3.7.1 Gametogenesis 164
3.7.2 Embryonic Development 167
3.7.3 Larva 170
3.7.4 Metamorphosis 171
3.7.5 Asexual Reproduction 172
3.8 The Order Dictyoceratida Minchin, 1900 172
3.8.1 Gametogenesis 172
3.8.1.1 Oogenesis 174
3.8.2 Embryonic Development 176
3.8.3 Larva 178
3.8.4 Metamorphosis 183
3.9 Recent ‘Sphinctozoa’, Family Verticillitidae Steinmann, 1882 187
3.9.1 Gametogenesis 188
3.9.1.1 Spermatogenesis 188
3.9.2 Follicle 188
3.9.3 Embryonic Development 189
3.9.3.1 Larval Morphogenesis 190
3.9.4 Larva 190
3.10 The Order Poecilosclerida Topsent, 1928 190
3.10.1 Gametogenesis 194
3.10.1.1 Spermatogenesis 194
3.10.1.2 Oogenesis 195
3.10.2 Follicle 199
3.10.3 Embryonic Development 200
3.10.3.1 Larval Morphogenesis 201
3.10.4 Larva 205
3.10.5 Metamorphosis 207
3.10.6 Asexual Reproduction 209
3.11 The Order Haplosclerida Topsent, 1928 209
3.11.1 Gametogenesis 211
3.11.2 Embryonic Development 215
3.11.2.1 Cleavage 215
3.11.2.2 Larval Morphogenesis 217
3.11.3 Larva 218
3.11.4 Metamorphosis 221
3.11.5 Asexual Reproduction 224
3.12 Order Astrophorida Sollas, 1888 227
3.12.1 Gametogenesis 228
3.12.1.1 Spermatogenesis 228
3.12.1.2 Oogenesis 229
3.12.2 Embryonic Development 231
3.12.3 Larva 232
3.12.4 Asexual Reproduction 233
Chapter 4 234
Development of Homoscleromorpha of the Order Homosclerophorida Dendy, 1905 234
4.1 Gametogenesis 238
4.2 Follicle 241
4.3 Embryonic Development 242
4.4 Larva 248
4.5 Metamorphosis 255
4.6 Asexual Reproduction 261
Chapter 5 265
Typization of Sponge Development and Its Significance for Phylogeny 265
5.1 Developmental Types of Modern Sponges 268
5.1.1 Amphiblastula Type of Development (Calcarea, Calcaronea) 268
5.1.2 Calciblastula Type of Development (Calcarea, Calcinea) 270
5.1.3 Trichimella Type of Development (Hexactinellida) 271
5.1.4 Direct Development (Demospongiae, Spirophorida, Tetilla) 271
5.1.5 Disphaerula Type of Development (Demospongiae, Halisarcida) 272
5.1.6 Parenchymella Type of Development (Most of Demospongiae) 273
5.1.7 Coeloblastula Type of Development (Demospongiae: Chondrosida Hadromerida – Polymastiidae)
5.1.8 Cinctoblastula Type of Development (Homoscleromorpha) 278
5.2 Phylogenetic Interpretation of Sponge Developmental Types 279
5.3 Embryonic Development and Early Radiation of Sponges 281
5.3.1 Development of Sponges with Incurvational Cleavage (the Subclass Calcaronea, Calcarea) 281
5.3.2 Development of Sponges with Polyaxial Cleavage 283
5.3.3 Development of Sponges with Radial Cleavage 283
5.3.4 Development of Sponges with Chaotic Cleavage 284
Chapter 6 287
Comparative Analysis of Individual Development in Sponges 287
6.1 Gametogenesis 287
6.2 Embryogenesis 290
6.2.1 Cleavage 290
6.2.2 Embryonic Morphogenesis and the Question of Whether Early Morphogenetic Movements in Sponges are Gastrulation 291
6.3 Postembryonic Development 297
6.3.1 Larvae 298
6.3.2 Metamorphosis 301
6.3.2.1 The Fate of Ciliated Larval Cells During Metamorphosis 303
6.3.2.2 Formation of the Main Body Axis of the Definitive Sponge in the Course of Metamorphosis and Its Correlation with the 308
6.3.2.3 Similarities Between the Larval Metamorphosis and the Development of Sponges from Cell Conglomerates 311
6.3.2.4 The Aquiferous System Development During Metamorphosis 312
6.3.3 Growth 314
6.3.4 Asexual Reproduction 314
6.4 Life Cycle Structure and Environmental Conditions 318
6.5 Vertical Transmission of Bacteria 321
6.6 The Causes of the Peculiarities of Sponge Ontogenesis 323
Chapter 7 325
Evolution and Individual Development of Sponges: Regularities and Directions 325
7.1 Early Evolution of Sponges 326
7.2 Evolution of the Development Accompanying Sexual Reproduction in Sponges 333
Chapter 8 338
In Place of Conclusion: Bauplan and Phylotypic Stage in Porifera 338
References 341